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Laminate Flooring Installation: A guide to assist homeowners with their remodeling projects
Laminate Flooring Installation: A guide to assist homeowners with their remodeling projects.
Laminate flooring is an easy and economical way to improve your existing flooring. Amateurs that have the necessary tools and education can do the installation. The skill level for laminate flooring is low, however, installing the wood trim is more difficult. Below are the steps to installing laminate flooring.
- Remove any appliances, furniture, or objects that exist in the area being remodeled.
- Remove base shoe trim around the edges of the room. The base trim can remain, as new base shoe will be added at the end of the process.
- Remove existing flooring to lower the level of the floor. This will help with transitions from room to room. If the room to be remodeled is considerably lower than the other floors, laminate can be laid directly on structurally sound existing floors. Another option would be to raise the floor to match adjacent rooms. This can be done with plywood.
- Install waterproofing paper membrane with staples to secure it to the floor. This will help the laminate resist warping.
- If the plastic laminate underlayment is unattached, install the underlayment.
- Cut door casing/jambs so that the laminate will slide underneath with limited clearance.
- Snap a starter line using the longest wall in the room that is perpendicular to the floor joists. This line should extend through the majority of the room.
- Lay the first row of laminate flooring using the snapped line as a reference. Secure the laminate by installing shims on the edges. The shim-space should not to exceed the width of the base shoe that will be installed later.
- Lay additional rows one at a time. Be sure to offset the joints by 6 inches of the joints in the previous row. Continue to shim from the edges.
- Install transition pieces according to their manufacturers.
- Install base shoe to the trim around the edges.
- Install matching putty or caulk in all nail holes and gaps.
- Replace any furniture or appliances.
Even if you plan to do the improvements yourself, it is important to contact a construction professional in your area before attempting any remodeling. Many professionals will lend you free advice or estimates. This will give you knowledge about your individual project and help you plan the process.
About the Author
Reis Grams is the owner/operator of Archway Contracting, a professional flooring and bathroom remodeling company based out of the Minneapolis and St. Paul metro area. He has 13 years experience in the construction industry.
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How Long Should my Resume Be?
One of the main questions asked about resumes is, “Do I have to include everything on one page?” The most common misconception of resume writing is that your entire professional history has to fit within one 8 1/2″x11″ page of white paper. The truth is, the resume should be well written and concise, and should promote your qualifications in the best possible light. This is sometimes impossible to do in one page. Thus, a resume can extend to multiple pages, with some consideration depending on your career level.
• Be concise. This is critical. Do not use lengthy sentences and paragraph forms to disclose your experience and your education. Employers want straight forward statements that highlight your qualifications. A resume is not a place to show your creative writing skills.
• Perfect your resume. You have second to catch your potential employer’s attention. Make sure that your resume is properly formatted, and you are not trying to fit too much copy on a single page of paper. Create appropriate and professional sections for your resume. Your potential employer is more concerned with the look and content of your resume than with its length.
• Longer is not better when you don’t have the experience to meet your career objective. If you are new to the job market, are changing careers, or you’ve only had one job, stick to a one page resume. If you don’t have the experience to meet your career objective, no matter the reason, do not apologize for it. Don’t try to fill up your resume with irrelevant content; instead do your best to highlight your transferable skills, and stick to the “short and sweet.”
• Unless you are applying for an executive-level job, or are composing curriculum vitae, your resume should not exceed two pages. The purpose of a well-written resume is to sell you as the best candidate for the job with a confident and a straight-forward approach. Do not oversell your skills. Do not list more than three to five previous positions you’ve help. Stick to those skills and experiences that best meet the job requirements and your career objective. The most relevant information has to be included on the first page. The second page should be numbered, with your contact information included as well (just in case the pages are separated when printed, you don’t want your potential employer to discard the second page of your resume completely). If you find yourself going over two pages, review your resume and make sure that you are not incorporating information that is irrelevant to your goals or to the position you are seeking.
• Make sure that your professional history warrants a resume that is three pages or longer. As mentioned above, unless you are a senior- or executive-level professional, or you are composing curriculum vitae, your resume should not extend to over two pages. If you have a longer resume, you will have to make sure that every statement on the resume is applicable to your career goals. If you have had decades of leadership experience for example, demonstrate that using the reverse chronological resume style and only list those jobs that best qualify you for the position you are seeking. If you need to include an extensive list of publications or certifications, your resume can take up more than three pages. Make sure that the important information is still listed on the first page. This includes your career objective and professional profile, and your current or most recent professional experience. All subsequent pages need to be numbered, and include your contact information in the heading.
About the Author
Learn about teacup maltipoo, bathing puppies and other information at the Small Breed Dogs site.
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HTC T8585EUBLK
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Customer Review:
Will change from HD2 BlackBerry Pearl where I was really excited about, but the window is destroyed in many ways.
PS: I’m not a fan of Mac-boy, I hate the fact that the products of Apple. All my computer and a laptop with Windows 7, so this review is anything but impartial.
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Cons:
1> This phone has so many features, but Windows seems to have locked a lot of original short screen, registry settings, not MP3 ringtones, video clips for the browser Opera Web, Options, Task Manager, and so on. The problem is that it is impossible, you can only play with the code and problem solved. But you have to download any software to edit the registry, and you know what you do. Why not give us a while before we all understand?
2> update the phone and you will lose all data and settings, I mean everything. It was slippery Microsoft, you can add only a backup in ActiveSync on your garbage?
3> It is available for Windows Mobile 7 information would be great, because my head really good reviews on it. But HD2 does not meet the “hardware” for the Seventh Win Mobile
4> You should use both hands to use the phone effectively. Or have a good hand. Ex. The browser is the way the address bar at the top, but the navigation is the way to the bottom, making it difficult to use with one hand.
5> I have to click in so many different places just to get my address above. Which unfortunately I can not even add my card main menu.
6> NO EXIT button for anything. If I click the back or “X” in the upper right corner stop for the Windows Mobile 6.5. That means cuts. We go to the Task Manager every time to stop the program. That drains my battery in case I forget.
7 hardware> is so strong, but the Windows Media Player will not play more videos by default. I had to download another freeware program, which got uninstalled when I upgrade.
8> When the battery is nearly dead, turn off the phone together, so there is no access to contacts, access time, alarms, messages or instructions. It gives the opportunity to work at a fair minimum required resources.
9> I can not see the clock or missed calls placed or received. I can not even see the clock when you set the alarm, you should return to the main screen to check the time.
10> The sound quality is good, maybe it’s just me, because my Pearl (8200) is a speaker and bass, which is much better than speakers HD2.
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Pro:
Its really cool. It looks very smart.
The camera is super awesome. I’ve never owned a mobile phone, and with this great camera.
I like the feel of it is not difficult.
Once you get over the cold is all about usability, which is severely lacking (at least compared with blackberries).
In conclusion, it may actually be better if you have received, not just the operating system shipping out this amazing phone. I am really disappointed with the decision of the HTC to go with Windows Mobile 6.5. When Windows 7 is just around the corner (it could have proposed a deal with Microsoft to support HD2 contract).
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BuyingHTC HD2 T8585 Unlocked Smartphone With 5 MP Camera, Windows Mobile 6.5, Wi-Fi, GPS – International Version With Warranty (Black)
Excellent Smartphone. Awesome iPhone killer
The HD2 is the best windows mobile smartphone. Period.
The screen is HUGE and the 1 Ghz processor is incredibly fast. I owned a Treo Pro and it wasn’t reliable. The HD2 is fast, can multitask with no trouble at all and the screen resolution and brightness is amazing. Many friends who are iPhone owners see it and begin questioning me about the phone. It’s really a pleasure to watch videos and read documents on this screen. Camera works great. Did I mention the double LED flash?
The HTC Sense UI works very well. HTC really did a good job with the HD2.
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Excellent product
This is my third HTC phone and it’s the third time I’m totally satisfied with HTC’s products. My past ones were HTC Tilt, HTC Fuze and now this one, the HD2. As a technician I always look for many things and details and this phone, in my opinion, was carefully designed, feels durable, you know: metal parts, screws (instead of crappy plastic tabs), solid and well finished. Regarding performance it’s very fast and responsive, the 1Ghz processor does its job handling the OS (WM 6.5), programs, music, pictures and video in a smooth and fast way. Handling pictures with this speed and multitouch feels very good (I must not forget to mention the big, bright and beautiful screen it has). I’ve put some movies (divx and xvid ones) and the video reproduction is perfect, even with subtitles. Sense 2.5, the HTC’s graphical user interface is well designed, practical and customizable (search the web for it), works flawlessly and it’s eye candy. Phone calls’s sound quality is better in my opinion than my previous phone, GPS (I use Garmin) works very well, also wifi, bluetooth didn’t use yet. I loke taking pictures with this phone because you can touch in the screen the object you want to make focus on, and works. Two leds for flash (and for flashlight or torch!) gives a good amount of light. Picture quality is enough for me.
Good luck!
ow PriceHTC HD2 T8585 Unlocked Smartphone With 5 MP Camera, Windows Mobile 6.5, Wi-Fi, GPS – International Version With Warranty (Black)
Is this phone ROM updateable? Hopefully it is not like my RUS version
I bought the HD2, unlocked etc., a few month’s ago from [...] to evaluate it as the platform for a mobile application development project. I noticed it had Russian literature in the package when I received it. Phone works fine and has English language interface. So it has been awhile and I was looking into ROM updates. WHen I punched in the serial number HT9C4NW03488 on [...] support site, it tells me it only updateable to ‘ROM Upgrade for HTC HD2(RUS)’.
The HTC factory support says this unit will be Russian language if I run this ROM update. They will provide factory repair, but no ROM update support. They say to contact seller for correct ROM update. The seller, [...], says 30 days is up, no support from them. Upon further questioning, they say to contact Brainstorm (1 626 330 0636) for support. Brainstorm is not responding to technical support questions.
I am not averse to ‘kitchen ROM’ updates and have kept Dell Axim units going as far as WM6.1 using unofficial ROM releases but not being able to officially update a brand new $700 phone is troublesome to think about. I would just suggest any purchasers of this ‘international’ version look into the update issue if they share my concern.
Shop ForHTC HD2 T8585 Unlocked Smartphone With 5 MP Camera, Windows Mobile 6.5, Wi-Fi, GPS – International Version With Warranty (Black)
Expectations exceeded
OK! I bought this phone considering two main reasons:
1.- I wanted a Widows mobile phone
2.- I wanted a gigantic screen to surf the web, watch videos and pictures, etc.
This phone runs Windows Mobile 6.5 with HTC Sense which is an excellent HTC Shell, brilliant, executive, serious, innovative, useful, customizable and extremely user friendly. First request has been fulfilled.
This is the greatest screen you’ll find… There’s just 1 device that comes closer (Toshiba TG01) and it is 0.2 inches smaller (Toshiba 4.1″ / HD2 4.3″) So my second reason is clearly covered. Indeed it is bigger than what I thought and I am obviously happy about it.
Extras: A LOT!!! The design is perfect, but device’s pictures describes it better than my words, it is so elegant and I like it very much.
Camera resolution is fine (not the best) but it does its job. Still pictures are very nice and video recording quality is also very good. I am very impressed about taking still pictures on dark environments beacuse it gets a highly brilliant and beautiful pictures. Its two led flash allows you to photograph almost anything on black dark environments (as long as it is closer enought to light it)
The capacitive screen prevents unwanted touches from any other thing that is not your finger (or skin) and it has a proximity sensor so you won’t click buttons with your face when talking on the phone. This proximity sensor turns off the screen when you place the phone on your ear and turns it back on when removed.
Battery life is amazing considering 1GHz processor and extra giant screen, I get more than 24hrs of power listening to music, placing and receiving calls, sending and receiving SMS, MMS, surfing the web through WiFi, GPRS, EDGE or 3G (any available) and “playing” with GPS, google maps, Garmin, etc.
It comes with an extremely addictive game (Teeter) that uses the built-in accelerometer to move a ball while you move the phone, the objective is to insert the ball in a green hole preventing the gray ones.
It has a built-in connection with Facebook, Twitter, Youtube and Windows Live, so your contacts are always up-to-date with status, tweets, profile pictures and even birthdays! (it stores birthdays on the calendar and alerts you on the go)
Microsoft has a very useful software “MyPhone” (not exclusive for this device but 4 all Windows Mobile phones) which allows you to sync contacts, calendar, pictures, text messages, music, documents, storage card contents and even location. This lets you change your device and by simply synchronizing with a couple of clicks, your new device will be exactly as the old one, and you don’t even need a computer ’cause it stores the content on your Windows Live account. (I’ve heard about a lot of BB users who loses their contacts when updating the BB messenger) So this deserves a big “Hurrah” for Microsoft. I found it soooo useful and important.
The stock manager allows you to keep track of your stocks, always up-to-date, it can even show graphics for 1 day behavior, 5 days, 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 1 and 2 years.
Storage card is placed below the back cover and it is not below the battery, so you can change it while phone is still on. It supports up to 32 GB microSD HC.
Applications included are very useful, I saw a review that talks about the simple calculator and this is wrong… it is not so simple, it has a simple calculator when holding the phone in a vertical position and you can get a scientific calculator if you turn your phone and hold it horizontal.
The MP3 trimmer allows you to cut an MP3 file in a determinated position and save and extract of it to use it as a ringtone.
Office Mobile includes OneNote where you can write using the keyboard or handwritting. (I also read a review that says that this phone won’t let you handwrite to create a message), this is also wrong… you can turn on this function on the keyboard options while you are writting your message.
WorldCard Mobile (found on tools) is an OCR recognition engine that lets you take a picture of a bussiness card and it recongnizes names, email, website, address, phones, etc and save it to a new contact so you don’t have to write it manually.
Remote Desktop Mobile lets you connect to any PC, the digital compass can be combined with google maps to get directions or orientate on unknown places and this HD2 can be configured as a WiFi router to use your mobile internet connection everywhere (GPRS, EDGE or 3G) so your laptop will be always online no matter where you are, it can connect to a network or bluetooth printer to print your documents on the go including Acrobat PDF documents. The Opera browser and even IE are flash compatible and you can navigate almost as if you are in front of your desktop PC.
The performance for this device is impressive with its 1GHz processor and as if this is not enought out there are millions of software apps that can be installed and customize your phone covering all your needs.
So, I can see no reasons why not to buy this monster. I hope that my review helps you decide what you want.
OrderHTC HD2 T8585 Unlocked Smartphone With 5 MP Camera, Windows Mobile 6.5, Wi-Fi, GPS – International Version With Warranty (Black)
Very nice gadget
I received mine in the end of December. A month is probably not enough to discover all bugs but so far I’m happy with the phone.
First of all, it is really fast. The 1GHz processor does it’s job.
The screen resolution is high and the screen size is big enough to surf the web with comfort.
HTC shell is something new to me (I used to have E-ten with Spb Mobile shell) but getting used to it.
Cannot say that I’m impressed with the still picture quality (SE phones have better pictures with less Mpx) but video recording is relatively good. There is no button for shutter so you always have to click on the screen to take picture – not convenient.
I need to charge my phone every second day – that definitely exceeded my expectations, taking into consideration fast processor and big hi-res screen.
The screen uses almost full width of the body, which sometimes causes unexpected clicks when I grab the phone (slowly getting used to it). When browsing e-mails the shell has button “reply to all” on the left side and when you click it, it changes to “send”. One time I grabbed the phone and it replied to all and sent an empty message to a huge distribution list. So keep it in mind and be careful 
I hope there will be a way to protect it somehow.
The phone is bigger than I expected – it’s exactly the size of 12oz beer can (you can hide one behind the phone).
The sound level and quality in conversations is excellent. Also, my Highlander hands-free connects very quickly with good sound level.
So far I did not have chance to use built-in GPS. I don’t expect anything special comparing to other similar phones.
It does not have a stylus. If you turn the phone, full size keyboard is big enough but.. I think I will get a stylus. At least you need one, when you surf Internet.
Overall – some little flaws, which I found so far, will not be enough to downgrade my 5 star rating. I really enjoy the phone and recommend it to others who is ready to spend [...] bucks on a gadget.
HTC HD2 T8585 Unlocked Smartphone With 5 MP Camera, Windows Mobile 6.5, Wi-Fi, GPS – International Version With Warranty (Black)
Best Phone Ever
I’ve read on the internet an comment from an owner of this Pocket PC and she seems to be very disappointed in this miracle.
Here is the link – [...]/ref=cm_cr_rdp_perm
Because I cannot post comments on the other amazon.com, I just wanted to spit it out somewhere, so I guess American amazon will work.
Here is the answer:
You seem to be somehow frustrated by this mobile phone. You don’t like almost ANY of it’s features, thus it is a very functional and ergonomic device. I was laughing my a** at the part where you said about Word, Excel… Go buy yourself a netbook. Come on people, netbooks are netbooks, notebooks are other thing, PCs and Macs – another thing. This is a Smartphone/Communicator/Pocket PC, not a desktop or whatever! When you will understand that a device like this is meant to simplify your life and help you ON THE GO with most of your tasks, while on the move, or when you don’t really have access to a real desktop computer? It is not supposed to make for you reports, graphs or cook a cake for God’s sake, it is just a freaking cool pocket PC with a very (very) good hardware base and an very (very) appealing and beautiful interface. Peace.
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Human Sacrifice In Aztec Culture
The antecedents of Mesoamerican sacrifice
The practice of human sacrifice was widespread in the Mesoamerican and in the South American cultures during the Inca Empire. Like all other known pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica, the Aztecs practiced human sacrifice. The extant sources describe how the Aztecs sacrificed human victims on each of their eighteen festivities, one festivity for each of their 20-day months. It is unknown if the Aztecs engaged in human sacrifice before they reached the Anahuac valley and started absorbing other cultural influences. The first human sacrifice reported in the sources was the sacrifice and skinning of the daughter of the king Cxcox of Culhuacn; this story is a part of the legend of the foundation of Tenochtitlan. Several ethnohistorical sources state that under the guidance of Tlacaelel the importance of human sacrifice in Aztec history was given extra emphasis.
The role of sacrifice in Mesoamerica
Human sacrifice as shown in the Codex Magliabechiano.
Sacrifice was a common theme in Mesoamerican cultures. In the Aztec “Legend of the Five Suns”, all the gods sacrificed themselves so that mankind could live. Some years after the Spanish conquest of Mexico, a body of Franciscans confronted the remaining Aztec priesthood and demanded, under threat of death, that they desist from their murderous practice. The Aztec priests defended themselves as follows:
Life is because of the gods; with their sacrifice they gave us life [...]. They produce our sustenance [...] which nourishes life.
What the Aztec priests were referring to was a central Mesoamerican belief: that a great, on-going sacrifice sustains the Universe. Everything is tonacayotl: the “spiritual flesh-hood” or “bodily [sacrificial] presence” of the gods on earth. Everything arth, crops, moon, stars and people springs from the severed or buried bodies, fingers, blood or the heads of the sacrificed gods. Humanity itself is macehualli, “those deserved and brought back to life through penance”. A strong sense of indebtedness was connected with this worldview. Indeed, nextlahualli (debt-payment) was a commonly used metaphor for human sacrifice, and, as Bernardino de Sahagn reported, it was said that the victim was someone who “gave his service”.
Human sacrifice was in this sense the highest level of an entire panoply of offerings through which the Aztecs sought to repay their debt to the gods. Both Sahagn and Toribio de Benavente (also called “Motolina”) observed that the Aztecs gladly parted with everything: burying, smashing, sinking, slaying vast quantities of quail, rabbits, dogs, feathers, flowers, insects, beans, grains, paper, rubber and treasures as sacrifices. Even the “stage” for human sacrifice, the massive temple-pyramids, was an offering mound: crammed with treasures, grains, soil and human and animal sacrifices that were buried as gifts to the deities. Adorned with the land’s finest art, treasure and victims, these temples had become buried offerings under new structures every half a century.
The sacrifice of animals was common, a practice for which the Aztecs bred dogs, eagles, jaguars and deer. Objects also were sacrificed by being broken and offered to the gods. The cult of Quetzalcatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds.
Self-sacrifice was also quite common; people would offer maguey thorns, tainted with their own blood and, like the Maya kings, would offer blood from their tongue, ear lobes, or genitals. Blood held a central place in Mesoamerican cultures. The Florentine Codex reports that in one of the creation myths Quetzalcatl offered blood extracted from a wound in his own genital to give life to humanity. There are several other myths in which Nahua gods offer their blood to help humanity.
Common people would offer maguey thorns with their blood. Lloyd deMause has argued that, like present-day self harmers, the Aztecs also practiced bloodletting from cuts made with obsidian knives or bone needles on fleshy parts of the body, like earlobes, lips, tongue, chest and calves. This was considered private and a personal act of penitence toward the gods. The thorns were put in a ball of straw called zacatapayoli and later placed in an adoratorium.
Much like the role of sacrifice elsewhere in the world, it thus seems that these rites functioned as a type of atonement for Aztec believers. Their sacrificial hymns describe the victim as ‘sent (to death) to plead for us,’ or ‘consecrated to annul all sin. ‘(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 232). In one such poem, a warrior-victim announces that ‘I embrace mankind…I give myself to the community.’(MSS Romance de Los … Folio 27r). Aztec society viewed even the slightest tlatlacolli (‘sin’ or ‘insult’) as an extremely malevolent supernatural force. For instance, if an adulterer were to enter a house, it was believed that all turkey chicks would perish from tlazomiquiztli (‘filth-death’)(Sahagun Bk. 5: 29: 191-192). To avoid such calamities befalling their community, those who had erred punished themselves by extreme measures such as slitting their tongues for vices of speech or their ears for vices of listening, and ‘for a slight [sin they] hanged themselves, or threw themselves down precipices, or put an end to themselves by abstinence’ (Motolinia, History of the Indies, 106-107). In Classic Nahuatl (the Aztec language) the verbal form ni-c-yecoa, ‘I sin’, is closely related to ni-c-ye.coa, ‘I finish it.’ It was believed that error of any sort could quite literally ‘finish’ or ‘ruin’ everything (Francisco Clavigero, Historia antiqua de Mxico, 7). This seems to have given Aztec society a heavy dependence on extremely violent ‘penance,’of which human sacrifice was considered one form (as already mentioned, human sacrifice was often called ‘penance’).
A great deal of cosmological thought seems to have underlain each of the Aztec sacrificial rites. By far the most common form of human sacrifice was heart-extraction, and this seems to have related to the Aztec belief that the heart(tona) was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun’s heat (istli). To this day, the Nahua consider the Sun to be a heart-soul (tona-tiuh) ’round, hot, pulsating’(Alan Sandtrom, Corn is Our Life, 1991, 239-240). It seems that in the Aztec view, humanity’s ‘divine sun fragments’ were considered ‘entrapped’ by the body and its desires:
Where is your heart? You give your heart to each thing in turn. Carrying, you do not carry it… You destroy your heart on earth (Nahua poem in Irene Nicholson, Firefly in the Night, 156 & 203).
Heart-extraction was viewed as a means of liberate istli and reunite it with the Sun, as aptly depicted in Codex Magliabechiano, Folio 70 (illustrated in this section), wherein a victim’s transformed heart flies Sunward on a trail of blood.
Finally, it should be noted that according to the Aztec (and Mesoamerican) world-view, the circumstances in which people died determined the type of afterlife they enjoyed. The Aztecs had meticulously organised death into several types, which each led to specific ‘heavenly’ and ‘underworld’ levels. In the levels Sahagun records, passing away quietly at home was the lowest, as it required the unfortunate soul to undergo numerous torturous trials and journeys, only to culminate in a sombre underworld. By contrast, what the Aztecs termed ‘a good death’ was sacrifice, war (which usually meant sacrifice) or – in the case of women – death whilst giving birth. This kind of end procured for the deceased the second-highest heaven (death in infancy being the highest). Persons who had died sacrificially or in war were called ‘the God-dead’ (Teo-micqui ) and were said to ‘go pure… live hard by, nigh unto the Sun… [who] always forever … rejoice … [since] the House of the Sun is … a place of joy (Sahagun Bk 6: 21).
The 52-year cycle
The cycle of fifty-two years was central to Mesoamerican cultures. The Nahua’s religious beliefs were based on a great fear that the universe would collapse after each cycle if the gods were not strong enough. Every fifty-two years a special New Fire ceremony was performed. All fires were extinguished and at midnight a human sacrifice was made. The Aztecs waited for the dawn. If the Sun appeared it meant that the sacrifices for this cycle had been enough. A fire was ignited on the body of a victim, and this new fire was taken to every house, city and town. Rejoicing was general: a new cycle of fifty-two years was beginning, and the end of the world had been postponed, at least for another 52-year century. (A similar ceremony is still practiced by small indigenous groups, but without human sacrifice.) The ceremony was older than the Aztecs. While originally it was believed it was a matter of luck to survive, the Aztecs thought that constant sacrifice through the fifty-two year cycle could postpone the end.
According to Miguel Len-Portilla, Tlacaelel reformed the original Nahua religion and the Aztecs viewed themselves as the main representatives for feeding the gods. This gave them a new sense of identity, from “people without face” as they were called by hostile neighbours, to the people in charge of the existence of the universe. Thus they began to call themselves “The people of the sun”. Other researchers dispute Len-Portilla’s perspective, pointing to the relative lack of primary sources.[citation needed]
Sacrifices to specific gods
Huitzilopochtli
Huitzilopochtli was the tribal deity of the Mexica and, as such, he represented the character of the Mexica people and was often identified with the sun at the zenith, and with warfare.
When the Aztecs sacrificed people to Huitzilopochtli ( the god with war like aspects ) the victim would be placed on a sacrificial stone. Then the priest would cut through the abdomen with an obsidian or flint blade. The heart would be torn out still beating and held towards the sky in honor to the Sun-God; the body would be carried away and either cremated or given to the warrior responsible for the capture of the victim. He would either cut the body in pieces and send them to important people as an offering, or use the pieces for ritual cannibalism. The warrior would thus ascend one step in the hierarchy of the Aztec social classes, a system that rewarded successful warriors.
Victim of sacrificial gladiatorial combat, from Codex Magliabechiano. Note that he is tied to a large stone and his macuahuitl (sword/club) is covered with what appears to be feathers instead of obsidian.
Tezcatlipoca
Tezcatlipoca was generally considered the most powerful god, the god of night, sorcery and destiny (the name tezcatlipoca means “smoking mirror”, or “obsidian”). The Aztecs believed that Tezcatlipoca created war to provide food and drink to the gods. Tezcatlipoca was known by several epithets including “the Enemy” and “the Enemy of Both Sides”, which stress his affinity for discord. Tezcatlipoca had the power to forgive sins and to relieve disease, or to release a man from the fate assigned to him by his date of birth; however, nothing in Tezcatlipoca’s nature compelled him to do so. He was capricious and often brought about reversals of fortune. To the Aztecs, he was an all-knowing, all-seeing nearly all-powerful god. One of his names can be translated as “We Who Are His Slaves”.
Some captives were sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca in ritual gladiatorial combat. The victim was tethered in place and given a mock weapon. He died fighting against up to four fully armed jaguar knights and eagle warriors.
During the 20-day month of Toxcatl, a young impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would be sacrificed. Throughout a year, this youth would be dressed as Tezcatlipoca and treated as a living incarnation of the God. The youth would represent Tezcatlipoca on earth; he would get four beautiful women as his companions until he met his destiny, in the meantime he walked through the streets of Tenochtitlan playing a flute. On the day of the sacrifice a feast would be held in Tezcatlipoca’s honor. The young man would climb the pyramid, break his flute and surrender his body to the priests. Sahagn compared it to the Christian Easter.
Huehueteotl
To appease Huehueteotl, the fire god and a senior deity, the Aztecs had a ceremony where they prepared a large feast at the end of which they would burn captives and before they died they would be taken from the fire and their hearts would be cut out. Motolina and Sahagn reported that the Aztecs believed that if they did not placate Huehueteotl a plague of fire would strike their city. The sacrifice was considered an offering to the deity.
Tlloc
Main article: Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures
Tlloc was the god of rain. The Aztecs believed that if sacrifices weren’t supplied for Tlloc, rain wouldn’t come and their crops wouldn’t flourish. Leprosy and rheumatism, diseases caused by Tlloc, would infest the village. Tlloc required the tears of the young as part of the sacrifice. The priests made the children cry during their way to immolation: a good omen that Tlloc would wet the earth in the raining season. In the Florentine Codex, also known as General History of the Things of New Spain, Sahagn wrote:
They offered them as sacrifices to [Tlaloc and Chalchiuhtlicue] so that they would give them water.
The Flower Wars
Main article: Flower war
It has often been claimed by scholars that the Aztecs resorted to a form of ritual warfare, the Flower War, to obtain living human bodies for the sacrifices in time of peace. This claim however has been severely criticised by scholars such as Ross Hassig and Nigel Davies who claim that the main purpose of the Flower Wars was political and not religious and that the number of sacrificial victims obtained through flower wars was insignificant compared to the number of victims obtained through normal political warfare.
According to Diego Durn’s History of the Indies of New Spain, and a few other sources that are also based on the Crnica X, the Flower Wars were originally a treaty between the cities of Aztec Triple Alliance and Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo motivated by a famine in Mesoamerica in 1450. Aztec prisoners were also sacrificed in Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo. The capture of prisoners for sacrifices was called nextlaualli (“debt payment to the gods”). These sources however are contradicted by other sources, such as the Codex Chimalpahin, which mentions “Flower Wars” much earlier than the famine of 1450 and against other opponents than the ones mentioned in the treaty.
Because the objective of Aztec warfare was to capture victims alive for human sacrifice, battle tactics were designed primarily to injure the enemy rather than kill him. After towns were conquered their inhabitants were no longer candidates for human sacrifice, only liable to regular tribute.
Slaves also could be used for human sacrifice, but only if the slave was considered lazy and had been resold three times.
A ceremonial offering of Aztec sacrificial knife blades at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
The sacrifice ritual
Most of the sacrificial rituals took more than two people to perform. In the usual procedure of the ritual, the sacrifice would be taken to the top of the temple. The sacrifice would then be laid on a stone slab by four priests, and his/her abdomen would be sliced open by a fifth priest with a ceremonial knife made of flint. The cut was made in the abdomen and went through the diaphragm. The priest would grab the heart and tear it out, still beating. It would be placed in a bowl held by a statue of the honored god, and the body thrown down the temple’s stairs.
Before and during the killing, priests and audience (who gathered in the plaza below) stabbed, pierced and bled themselves as autosacrifice (Sahagun, Bk. 2: 3: 8, 20: 49, 21: 47). Hymns, whistles, spectacular costumed dances and percussive music marked different phases of the rite.
The body parts would then be disposed of: the viscera fed the animals in the zoo; the bleeding head was placed on display in the tzompantli, meaning ‘hairy skulls’. Not all the skulls in the tzompantlis were victims of sacrifice. In the Anales de Tlatelolco it is described that during the siege of Tlatelolco by the Spaniards, the Tlatelolcas built three tzompantli: two for their own dead and one for the fallen conquerors, including two severed heads of horses.
Other kinds of human sacrifice, which paid tribute to various deities, approached the victims differently. The victim could be shot with arrows (in which the draining blood represented the cool rains of spring); die in unequal fighting (gladiatorial sacrifice) or be sacrificed as a result of the Mesoamerican ballgame; burned (to honor the fire god); flayed after being sacrificed (to honor Xipe Totec, “Our Lord The Flayed One”), or drowned.
A tzompantli, or skull rack, as shown in the post-Conquest Ramirez Codex.
Estimates of the scope of the sacrifices
For the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days, though there were probably far fewer sacrifices. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, “between 10,000 and 80,400 persons” were sacrificed in the ceremony. The higher estimate would average 14 sacrifices per minute during the four-day consecration. As a comparison, the Auschwitz concentration camp, working 24 hours a day with modern technology, approached but did not equal this pace: it executed about 19,200 a day at its peak. Four tables were arranged at the top so that the victims could be jettisoned down the sides of the temple. Nonetheless, according to Codex Telleriano-Remensis, old Aztecs who talked with the missionaries told about a much lower figure for the reconsecration of the temple, approximately 4,000 victims in total.
Michael Harner, in his 1977 article The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice, estimates the number of persons sacrificed in central Mexico in the 15th century as high as 250,000 per year. Fernando de Alva Corts Ixtlilxochitl, a Mexica descendant and the author of Codex Ixtlilxochitl, claimed that one in five children of the Mexica subjects was killed annually. Victor Davis Hanson argues that an estimate by Don Carlos Zumrraga of 20,000 per annum is “more plausible.” Other scholars believe that, since the Aztecs always tried to intimidate their enemies, it is more likely that they could have inflated the number as a propaganda tool. The same can be said for Bernal Daz’s inflated calculations when, in a state of visual shock, he grossly miscalculated the number of skulls at one of the seven Tenochtitlan tzompantlis. According the Florentine Codex, fifty years before the conquest the Aztecs burnt the skulls of the former tzompantli. Mexican archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma has unearthed and studied some tzompantlis.
Sacrifices were made on specific days. Sahagn, Juan Bautista de Pomar and Motolina report that the Aztecs had eighteen festivities each year, one for each Aztec month. They clearly state that in those festivities sacrifices were made. Each god required a different kind of victim: young women were drowned for Xilonen; children were sacrificed to Tlloc; Nahuatl-speaking prisoners to Huitzilopochtli, and a single nahua would volunteer for Tezcatlipoca. The Ramrez Codex states that for the annual festivity of Huitzilopochtli more than sixty prisoners were sacrificed in the main temple, and prisoners were sacrificed in other large Aztec cities as well.
Not all sacrifices were made at the Tenochtitlan temples; a few were made at “Cerro del Pen”, an islet of the Texcoco lake. According to an Aztec source, in the month of Tlacaxipehualiztli (from February 22 to March 13), thirty-four captives were sacrificed in the gladiatorial sacrifice to Xipe Totec. More victims would be sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli in the month Panquetzaliztli (from 9 November to 28 November) according to the Ramrez Codex. This would mean a figure as low as 300 to 600 victims a year. There is little agreement on the actual figure due to the scarcity of archeological evidence.
Every Aztec warrior would have to provide at least one prisoner for sacrifice. All the male population was trained to be warriors, but only the few who succeeded in providing captives could became full-time members of the warrior elite. Those who could not would become macehualli, workers. Accounts also state that several young warriors could unite to capture a single prisoner, which suggests that capturing prisoners for sacrifice was challenging.
There is still much debate as to what social groups constituted the usual victims of these sacrifices. It is often assumed that all victims were ‘disposable’ commoners or foreigners. However, slaves – a major source of victims – were not a permanent class but rather persons from any level of Aztec society who had fallen into debt or committed some crime (see Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 131, 260). Likewise, most of the earliest accounts talk of prisoners of war of diverse social status, and concur that virtually all child sacrifices were locals of noble lineage, offered by their own parents (compare Cortes, Letters 105 with Motolinia, History of the Lindies 118-119 and Duran, Book of the Gods, 223, 242).
Likewise, it is doubtful if many victims came from far afield. In 1454, the Aztec government forbade the slaying of captives from distant lands at the capital’s temples (Duran, The Aztecs: History of the Indes, 141). Duran’ s informants told him that sacrifices were consequently ‘nearly always … friends of the [Royal] House’- meaning warriors from allied states (Duran, The Aztecs: History of the Indies, 141, 198). This probably meant that the average Aztec warrior stood as much chance of procuring a victim as he did of himself becoming one – as the Aztec Emperor reportedly told all captives about to be sacrificed: ‘today for you, tomorrow for me’(Tezozomoc Vol.2).
Discussion of primary sources
Codex Tudela.
Early Spanish accounts mention the sacrificial practice of the Aztecs as well as other Mesoamerican cultures in the 16th century. There are numerous depictions of sacrifices in the Mexica statuary, as well as in codices such as the Ros, Tudela, Telleriano-Remensis, Durn, and Sahagn’s Florentine. On the other hand, the pre-Columbian, indigenous codices that depict the rites were not written texts but pictorial and highly symbolic ideographshe Aztecs did not have a true writing system such that of the Mayas. Bishop Zumarraga (1528-48) burned all obtainable texts in his religious zeal.
For Mesoamerica as a whole, the accumulated archaeological, iconographical and in the case of the Maya written evidence, indicates that human sacrifice was widespread across cultures and periods, dating back to 600 BCE and possibly much earlier. Osteological analyses have also been interpreted as corroborating the texts. Pictorial illustrations of sacrifices on Maya ceramics and stelae have also been published.
Accounts from the Grijalva expeditions
In addition to the accounts provided by Sahagn and Durn, there are other important texts to be considered.
Juan de Grijalva, Hernn Corts, Juan Daz, Bernal Daz, Andrs de Tapia, Francisco de Aguilar, Ruy Gonzlez and the Anonymous Conqueror wrote about the Conquest of Mexico. Martyr d’Anghiera, Lopez de Gomara, Oviedo y Valdes and Illescas, while not in Mesoamerica, wrote their accounts based on interviews with the participants. Bartolom de Las Casas and Sahagn arrived later to New Spain but had access to direct testimony, especially of the indigenous people. All of these narratives mention and describe the practice of human sacrifice.
Juan Daz
Juan Daz, a participant of the 1518 Grijalva expedition, wrote Itinerario de Grijalva before 1520, in which he describes the aftermath of a sacrifice on an island near Veracruz.
Bernal Daz
Main article: The Conquest of New Spain
Bernal Daz corroborates Juan Daz’s history:
On these altars were idols with evil looking bodies, and that every night five Indians had been sacrificed before them; their chests had been cut open, and their arms and thighs had been cut off. The walls were covered with blood. We stood greatly amazed and gave the island the name isleta de Sacrificios [Island of the Sacrifices].
In The Conquest of New Spain Daz recounted that, after landing on the coast, they came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca. “That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol”. Daz narrates several more sacrificial descriptions on the later Corts expedition. Arriving at Cholula, they find “cages of stout wooden bars [...] full of men and boys who were being fattened for the sacrifice at which their flesh would be eaten”. When the conquistadors reached Tenochtitlan, Daz described the sacrifices at the Great Pyramid:
They strike open the wretched Indian’s chest with flint knives and hastily tear out the palpitating heart which, with the blood, they present to the idols [...]. They cut off the arms, thighs and head, eating the arms and thighs at ceremonial banquets. The head they hang up on a beam, and the body is [] given to the beasts of prey.
According to Bernal Daz, the chiefs of the surrounding towns, for example Cempoala, would complain on numerous occasions to Corts about the perennial need to supply the Aztecs with victims for human sacrifice. It is clear from his description of their fear and resentment toward the Mexicas that, in their opinion, it was no honor to surrender their kinsmen to be sacrificed by them.
Hernn Corts
Corts describes similar events in his Letters:
They have a most horrid and abominable custom which truly ought to be punished and which until now we have seen in no other part, and this is that, whenever they wish to ask something of the idols, in order that their plea may find more acceptance, they take many girls and boys and even adults, and in the presence of these idols they open their chests while they are still alive and take out their hearts and entrails and burn them before the idols, offering the smoke as sacrifice. Some of us have seen this, and they say it is the most terrible and frightful thing they have ever witnessed.
The Anonymous Conqueror
The Anonymous Conqueror’s Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan details Aztec sacrifices. In Chapter XIV he depicts the temple in which men, women, boys and girls were sacrificed. On Chapter XXIV the Anonymous Conqueror repeatedly claims that the Aztecs were cannibals, sodomites, alcoholics and polygamists. The original Spanish text is lost. The description of the temple was published in the 1556 Ramusio Italian edition.
A jaguar-shaped cuauhxicalli in the National Museum of Anthropology. This altar-like stone vessel was used to hold the hearts of sacrificial victims. See also chacmool.
Assessment of the practice of human sacrifice
Human sacrifice was nothing new when the Aztecs arrived to the Valley of Mexico, nor was it something unique to pre-Columbian Mexico. Other Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Tarascans and Toltecs, performed human sacrifices as well. Although the extent of human sacrifice is unknown among several Mesoamerican civilizations, such as Teotihuacn, what distinguished Maya and Aztec human sacrifice was the importance with which it was embedded in everyday life.
Diego Durn states that Aztecs made “indifferent or sarcastic remarks” when the Spaniards severely criticized the rite. In his Book of the Gods and Rites some of the Nahuas even ridiculed the Christian sensibilities. Instead, they asked the Spaniards to applaud:
The sacrifice of human beings [], the honored oblation of great lords and noblemen. They remember these things and tell of them as if they had been great deeds.
Although Aztec accounts mention some victims who wept, ‘faltered… weakened’ or ‘lost control of their bowels’ when going to be sacrificed (Sahagun Bk 2: 81), this reaction does not seem to have been the norm, as when this occurred, it was viewed as a bad omen (Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 132), and a tetlazolmictiliztli (‘insult to the gods’)(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 132). Such victims were hurriedly taken aside and slain amidst the congregation’s sarcastic jeers of ‘(the victim has) quite acquitted himself as a man’(Sahagun Bk 2:21). Contrary to popular perceptions of Aztec victims being terrified of their fate, even the Conquistadors Cortes and Alvarado found that those they freed ‘indignantly rejected [the] offer of release and demanded to be sacrificed.’(Bernal Diaz, The Conquest of New Spain,159).
What we can glean from all this is that the sacrificial role entailed a great deal of social expectation and a certain degree of acquiescence. Sahagun’s informants told him that key roles were reserved for persons who were considered ‘charming…quick..dances with feeling.. without [moral] defects … of good understanding … good mannered’(Sahagun Bk 2: 24: 68-69). For many rites, the victim had such a quantity of prescribed duties that it is difficult to imagine how the accompanying festival would have progressed without some degree of compliance on the part of the victim. For instance, victims were expected to bless children, greet and cheer passers-by, hear people’s petitions to the gods, visit people in their homes, give discourses and lead sacred songs, processions and dances (Sahagun Bk 5: 8; Bk 2: 5:9; Bk 2:24:68-69). The works of Clendinnen and Brundage imply that only a few select victims had this kind of role, but the Florentine Codex and Duran both make no such distinctions, stating that ‘those who had to die performed many ceremonies… [and] these [pre-sacrificial] rites were performed in the case of all the prisoners, each in turn.’(see Sahagun Bk 2:5:9 and Duran, Book of the Gods…p. 112).
It should also be remembered that these sacrifices were ritualistic and symbolic acts accompanying huge feasts and festivals. Victims usually died in the “center stage” amidst the splendor of dancing troupes, percussion orchestras, elaborate costumes and decorations, carpets of flowers, crowds of thousands of commoners, and all the assembled elite.
This might explain why Aztec texts frequently refer to human sacrifice as neteotoquiliztli, ‘the desire to be regarded as a god’(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 177 Note 4). For each festival, at least one or more victims took on the paraphernalia, habits and attributes of the god or goddess whom they were dying as. Particularly the young man who was indoctrinated for a year to submit himself to Tezcatlipoca’s temple was the Aztec equivalent of a celebrity or rock star, being greatly revered and adored to the point of people “kissing the ground” when he passed by, as Sahagn put it.
This practice was known as becoming an ixiptla – namely, the god’s representative, image or idol. Ixiptla was the same term used for wooden, stone and dough images of gods. Interestingly, Aztec texts rarely differentiate between human ixiptla and wooden or stone ixiptla. In fact, so elaborately costumed and painted were human ixiptla that even the congregation was unsure which were human and which were stone or wood (Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 102). When a victim appeared in full regalia before the congregation, it was said that the divinity had been given ‘human form’- that the god now had an ixitli (face)(Duran, Book of the Gods…, 72-73). Duran says such victims were’worshipped… as the deity’(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, 42,109,232) or ‘as though they had been gods’(Sahagun, Florentine Codex Bk 2: 226, 238-239) (-the original Nahuatl term being nienoteoti’tzinea, literally, ‘I consider him a god’)(Clavigero, 98). Even whilst still alive, these victims were honoured, hallowed and addressed (like gods) as ‘Lord’ and ‘Lady’(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites.., 189) Posthumously, their remains were treated as actual relics of the gods which explains why victims’ skulls, bones and skin were often painted, bleached, stored and displayed, or else used as ritual masks and oracles. For example, Diego Duran’s informants told him that whoever wore the skin of the victim portraying god Xipe considered himself ‘divine’(Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites..176).
Proposed explanations of Aztec human sacrifice
Aztec or Mixtec sacrificial knife, probably for ceremonial use only, in the British Museum.
The nutritional explanation
Main article: Cannibalism in pre-Columbian America
Scholars Michael Harner and Marvin Harris have argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was actually the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced human sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. At one extreme anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. This claim has been refuted by Bernard Ortz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins.
The political explanation
The high-profile nature of the sacrificial ceremonies indicates that human sacrifice played an important political function. The Mexica used a sophisticated package of psychological weaponry to maintain their empire, aimed at instilling a sense of fear into their neighbours. The Aztecs controlled a large empire of tribute paying vassal tribes. The population of native Aztecs was very small compared to the population of the area they controlled. The Aztecs were vulnerable – they would have been easily outnumbered had their vassal tribes formed alliances and rebelled. To sow dissention among the vassals the Aztecs demanded human victims as part of the annual tribute. The vassals would raid each other to capture prisoners. This encouraged animosity between the vassals and strengthened Aztec political central rule. This was a method of political control which was innovative and perhaps unique in human history.
European empires, in contrast, were typically secured through the creation of garrisons and installation of puppet governments in conquered towns or settlements. The Mexica used human sacrifice as a weapon of terror even against the Spanish conquistadors, whose fallen victims were sacrificed and sometimes skinned and their bloody heads placed at the tzompantli. From across the empire even the chiefs of enemy towns were invited, or in the case of tributary towns obliged, to attend sacrificial ceremonies in Tenochtitlan. Their refusal would be considered an act of defiance against the Mexica.
The psychological explanation
For Lloyd deMause it is significant that the victims were invested of a profound cosmological meaning. According to him and a minority of academics who subscribe to an alternate school of thought, “psychohistory”, human sacrifices, including sacrifices in Mesoamerica, were an unconscious form of response to the traumatogenic modes of childrearing. DeMause in particular considers the Aztecs’ practice of sacrifice as displacement.
External links
Article “El sacrificio humano en Mesoamrica” by Michel Graulich – in Arqueologa mexicana, vol. XI, nmero 63, pp. 16-21. (Spanish)
Notes
^ Matos-Moctezuma, Eduardo (1986). Vida y muerte en el Templo Mayor. Fondo de Cultura Econmica.
^ “Evidence May Back Human Sacrifice Claims” By Mark Stevenson
^ “Grisly Sacrifices Found in Pyramid of the Moon” By LiveScience Staff.
^ a b Harner, Michael (1977). “The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice”. American Ethnologist 4 (1): 117135. doi:10.1525/ae.1977.4.1.02a00070.
^ Leonardo Lpez-Lujn’s address in “Nuevas perspectivas sobre el sacrificio humano entre los mexicas”, an international seminary of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia celebrated in September 2007 in the Museum of the Templo Mayor.
^ Graulich, Michael (2003). “El sacrificio humano en Mesoamrica”. Arqueologa mexicana XI (63): 1621.
^ Reinhard, Johan (November 1999). “A 6,700 metros nios incas sacrificados quedaron congelados en el tiempo”. National Geographic, Spanish version: 3655.
^ Bernardino de Sahagn, Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espaa, ed. a cargo de ngel Ma. Garibay (Mxico: Editorial Porra, 2006), chapters XX to XXXVIII
^ Thema, Equipo (2002). Los aztecas. Ediciones Rueda. pp. 3940.
^ Nicholson, Henry B. (1971). (in) Handbook of Middle American Indians. University of Texas Press. p. 402.
^ Len-Portilla (1963, p.111).
^ Museo del Templo Mayor, Hall 2
^ Cecelia Klein. “The Ideology of Autosacrifice at the Templo Mayor” in E. H. Boone, ed. The Aztec Templo Mayor pp. 293-370. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. 1987 ISBN 0-88402-149-1
^ Soustelle, Jacques (2003). La vida cotidiana de los aztecas. Fondo de Cultura Econmica. p. 102ff.
^ Durn, Fr. Diego (1967). Historia de las Indias de Nueva Espaa. Porra.
^ deMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. Karnac. p. 413.
^ Matos-Moctezuma, Eduardo (2006). Tenochtitlan. Fondo de Cultura Econmica. pp. 17273.
^ Bernardino de Sahagn, Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espaa (op. cit.), p. 76
^ Sahagn, Ibid.
^ Duverger, Christian (2005). La flor letal: economa del sacrificio azteca. Fondo de cultura econmica. pp. 8393.
^ Sahagn, Op. cit., p. 79
^ Bernardino de Sahagn, Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espaa (op. cit.), p. 83
^ Sahagn, Fray Bernardino (1950-1959). Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. 1561-82., trans. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble. Santa Fe: School of American Research and the University of Utah. III, 5.
^ Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-806-12121-1.
^ Hassig, Ross (2003). “El sacrificio y las guerras floridas”. Arqueologa mexicana XI: 4651.
^ Davies, Nigel (1968). Los Seorios independientes del Imperio Azteca. Mexico D.F.: Instituto Nacional de Antropologa e Historia (INAH).
^ Duverger, Christian (2005). La flor letal. Fondo de cultura econmica. p. 81.
^ Bernardino de Sahagn, Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espaa (op. cit.), p. 88
^ Duverger, Christian (2005). La flor letal. Fondo de cultura econmica. pp. 139140.
^ Duverger, Ibid., 171
^ Duverger (op. cit.), pages 157-167
^ Hassig, Ross (2003). “El sacrificio y las guerras floridas”. Arqueologa mexicana XI: 47.
^ Victor Davis Hanson (2000), Carnage and Culture, Doubleday, New York, pp. 194-195. Hanson, who accepts the 80,000+ estimate, also notes that it exceeded “the daily murder record at either Auschwitz or Dachau.”
^ Hanson, p. 195.
^ Duverger (op. cit), 174-77
^ Matos-Moctezuma, Eduardo (2005). Muerte a filo de obsidiana. Fondo de Cultura Econmica. pp. 111124.
^ George Holtker, “Studies in Comparative Religion”, The Religions of Mexico and Peru, Vol 1, CTS
^ – “Ritual Sacrifice and the Feathered Serpent Pyramid at Teotihuacn, Mxico” By George L. Cowgill
^ – “Analysis of Kaqchikel Skeletons: Iximch, Guatemala” By Stephen L. Whittington & Robert H. Tykot
^ Stuart, David (2003). “La ideologa del sacrificio entre los mayas”. Arqueologa mexicana XI (63): 2429.
^ Daz, Bernal (2005) . Historia verdadera de la conquista de Nueva Espaa (Introduccin y notas de Joaqun Ramrez Cabaas). Editorial Porra. p. 24.
^ Daz (op. cit.), p. 150
^ Dinesh D’Souza’s article
^ The Conquest of New Spain, chap. XLVI
^ Corts, Hernn (2005) . Cartas de relacin. Mxico: Editorial Porra. p. 26. ”Y tienen otra cosa horrible y abominable y digna de ser punida que hasta hoy no habamos visto en ninguna parte, y es que todas las veces que alguna cosa quieren pedir a sus dolos para que ms acepten su peticin, toman muchas nias y nios y aun hombre y mujeres de mayor edad, y en presencia de aquellos dolos los abren vivos por los pechos y les sacan el corazn y las entraas, y queman las dichas entraas y corazones delante de los dolos, y ofrecindolos en sacrificio aquel humo. Esto habemos visto algunos de nosotros, y los que lo han visto dicen que es la ms cruda y espantosa cosa de ver que jams han visto”.
^ – Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan, Mxico, Chapter XV, written by a Companion of Hernn Corts, The Anonymous Conqueror.
^ Ibid., Chapter XIV
^ Ibid., Chapter XXIV
^ DNA analysis shows that the Teotihuacan civilization brought human victims from distant towns.
^ Diego Duran, Book of the Gods and Rites, p. 227
^ Sahagn, Historia general, op. cit, p. 104
^ Website of the British Museum.
^ Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1990). Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition. Rutgers University Press.
^ Ortiz De Montellano, Bernard R. (1983). “Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris”. American Anthropologist, New Series 85, (2): 403406.
^ Godwin, Robert (2004). One Cosmos under God. Omega Books. pp. 142, 154.
^ deMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. Karnac. e.g., pp. 31, 289290, 312, 374, and 410.
References
Anonymous Conqueror (1917) [ca.1550] (online reproduction by FAMSI, edited by Alec Christensen). Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan, Mxico. Marshall H. Saville (trans. and ed.). New York: The Cortes Society. OCLC 6720413. http://www.famsi.org/research/christensen/anon_con/index.html. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
Carrasco, David (1999). City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-4642-6. OCLC 41368255.
Daz del Castillo, Bernal (1963) . The Conquest of New Spain. Penguin Classics. J. M. Cohen (trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044123-9. OCLC 162351797.
Durn, Diego (1994) [ca.1581]. The History of the Indies of New Spain. Civilization of the American Indian series, #210. Doris Heyden (trans., annot., and introd.) (English translation of Historia de las Indias de Nueva-Espaa y Islas de Tierra Firme ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2649-3. OCLC 29565779.
Godwin, Robert W. (2004). One Cosmos under God: The Unification of Matter, Life, Mind & Spirit. Saint Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-836-7. OCLC 55131504.
Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 188. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2121-1. OCLC 17106411.
Len-Portilla, Miguel (1963). Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nhuatl Mind. Civilization of the American Indian series, #67. Jack Emory Davis (trans.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. OCLC 181727.
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo (1998). Vida y muerte en el Templo Mayor (3rd ed.). Mxico D.F.: Fondo de Cultura Econmica. ISBN 968-16-5712-8. OCLC 40997904. (Spanish)
Ortiz De Montellano, Bernard R. (June 1983). “Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris”. American Anthropologist (Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association) 85 (2): 403406. doi:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00130. OCLC 1479294.
Ortiz De Montellano, Bernard R. (1990). Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-1562-9. OCLC 20798977.
Sahagn, Bernardino de (195082) [ca. 154085]. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. in 12. vols. I-XII. Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J.O. Anderson (eds., trans., notes and illus.) (translation of Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Espaa ed.). Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City: School for American Research and the University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-082-X. OCLC 276351.
Schele, Linda; and Mary Ellen Miller (1992). Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. Justin Kerr (photographer) (2nd paperback edn., reprint with corrections ed.). New York: George Braziller. ISBN 0-8076-1278-2. OCLC 41441466.
v d e
Aztec religion and mythology
Aztec religion
Human sacrifice in Aztec culture Templo Mayor
Aztec mythology
Centeotl Chalchiuhtlicue Cihuacoatl Coatlicue Coyolxauhqui Ehecatl Huehuecoyotl Huehueteotl Huitzilopochtli Mictlantecuhtli Mixcoatl Quetzalcoatl Tepoztecatl Tezcatlipoca Tlaloc Tlazolteotl Toci Tonatiuh Xipe Totec Xiuhcoatl Xiuhtecuhtli Xochipilli Xochiquetzal Xolotl
Places in Aztec myth
Aztln Mictlan Tlalocan Tamoanchan Tlillan-Tlapallan
Categories: Aztec society | Aztec mythology and religion | Human sacrificeHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007
About the Author
I am an expert from China Crafts Suppliers, usually analyzes all kind of industries situation, such as cotton table runners , wood coffee stirrers.
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Mnt Exceed 2008 1U with 1YR $619.99 EXCEED 2008 1U W/1YR… |
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Mnt Exceed 2008 5U with 1YR $1,809.99 Item #: M60516. Exceed is the most secure and popular PC X server in the market. It allows users to cost-effectively connect powerful Microsoft Windows desktops to a wide variety of X Window enabled servers, and access high-end X applications. Product Description: Exceed 2008 – licenseCategory: Networking applicationsSubcategory: Network – connectivity & data sharingLicense Type: LicenseBundled Su… |
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Exceed Hummingbird 10
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Make Hummingbird Exceed 10 work on 64 bit?
I have a full version of Exceed 10. The new one is pricey. I need to get Exceed 10 to work on a 64-bit Windows OS. It says its not supported and it won’t even attempt to install. Is there any way to get this to work on a Windows 64-bit OS, particularly Windows 7?
have had a few programs that would not work in windows 64 bit mode. solution, download the free windows virtual pc program from microsoft. this will install windows xp on your machine that will allow you to run programs that do not run in windows 7 64 bit. windows 7 64 bit will still be on your machine. all you have to do is to go to programs, virtual pc, windows xp mode. your program should run now. by the way, if you run internet explorer in 64 bit mode, adobe flash player will not work. go figure.
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Numerology is another popular method of psychic reading. There are a number of ways in which you can have a numerology reading such as either adding up the numbers in your birth date or adding up the number values of the alphabetical letters in your name. If you search on the web, there are a number of psychic sites that offer free psychic readings in numerology.
If you delve into numerology it is actually truly interesting. There are many people out there who believe that numerology is a field of science on its own. However there are many others who see numerology as exceedingly theoretical and belief oriented. You might want to get a free psychic reading for numerology yourself to decide which side you agree with. Just by going on to Google and searching for the free psychic reading or numerology you would be able to find hundreds of links to psychic sites that would provide you with a free psychic reading.
The reason why you should receive a free psychic reading if you are looking into numerology is because many psychics have different interpretations and meanings for all of the numbers. If you were to receive a free psychic reading on numerology and the psychic was completely lying to you there is no actual way to tell if he/she was actually lying to you or not. There are no strict ‘set in stone’ meanings for the numbers. A gifted psychic who can provide you with a genuine free psychic reading about numerology can reveal many important things.
People who are obsessed with numerology to an unhealthy extent put numerology into everything in their life. They seek free psychic readings on numerology for advice on every number value that they have. For example they could use numerology to pre-determine what type of phone number they would like to have, what number player they should root for on their favorite basketball team, all the way up to what their actual favorite number will be.
They strongly believe in the karma of numerology. They want to be aware of what numbers suit well with their lives and which they should avoid in order to duck away from bad luck coming their way. In such a sense, a free psychic reading would generally be a good idea. Who wouldn’t want to get a free psychic reading in numerology to find out which numbers they should avoid?
As long as you look at numerology from a practical point of view and don’t get obsessive compulsive disorder from it; I believe it’s a fun idea. Whenever it is a free psychic reading you do want to take the information with a grain of salt. As with many other free things in life, you just never know when it comes to getting free psychic readings these days. If you do end up with a numerology reading you aren’t content with there’s always other ways to get a free psychic reading. You live and you learn.
About the Author
For More Information Please Visit Website: – http://www.lifepsychic.com/
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Exceed Virtual Desktop
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windows vista boot up slow b/c its exceeding ram?
acer 512 ram amd laptop.
i understand 512 is a horrible number for vista (basic only). i comprimised by shutting off some services so after a full boot, it uses 300-400 ram, sparing me about 100. this computer is meant for light work so i dont need too much ram.
it gets stuck on welcome for a minute. as soon as it gets to desktop, i open task manager. and i see that it is at 495 PF usage. after another minute, it goes down to 395 PFU.
my question is…is it stuck at startup for 1 min b/c maybe its using more virtual memory than my ram? i dont want to add more ram…so how can i stop vista from using so much ram at startup?
ppl, i really mean this is for light work….i have 2 desktops and 2 laptops…im not buying more ram for this…
RAM is really cheap now. You can buy a 1 GB or 512 MB for less than $50. The improvement you would notice would be tremendous.
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