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“Msr Exe Has Encountered A Problem And Needs To Close” – Fix Now!
Just when you least expect it, computer errors can occur, and the sudden display of a “msr exe has encountered a problem and needs to close” can leave you confused; but spend a couple of minutes with this short guide, and I’ll demonstrate a user-friendly procedure that will empower you to rid your computer of this problem.
It is often the case that these problems have as their source the computer’s registry system – this is the location where your windows tracks your software and hardware as you install, update, or remove them from your system. As time goes by and your pc gets filled up with the latest and greatest applications, it isn’t unusual to encounter an improper installation/uninstallation of a program; this can have the effect of having a “msr exe has encountered a problem and needs to close”, your system’s functioning at a less than desirable level, and other errors.
What happens is that one or several of your windows registry sections is damaged or corrupted which can cause windows to act erratically and quit when it tries to operate one or few of your applications; when it happens, windows ‘spits’ these popup error messages (in the best case…). Anyhow, there’s no need to get upset over it, since as i already stated in the first paragraph it is normally able to be fixed quite easily.
Before going to a computer technician for an expensive solution, or try to fool around with the Windows registry by yourself – hold on! It is not a difficult job to repair a “msr exe has encountered a problem and needs to close”; even if you don’t happen to be a computer whiz, you can take advantage of specialized registry repairing tools that detect problem spots in the registry, and then finish the job by fixing them! The bulk of these highly specialized tools allow you to use the tool to search and repair at no cost, so it is advisable that you download such utility and see for yourself how simple it is to get rid of those errors; in the minute or two it takes to download a tool and start scanning, your registry error problem will be a thing of the past.
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Aaa Radius And Diameter Server Market Shares Strategies, And Forecasts, 2009 To -Aarkstore Enterprise
AAA Radius / Diameter is positioned to provide connections in the highly competitive remote access environment. Service providers and corporate enterprises need cost-effective tools that smooth the integration of the powerful new services that are constantly emerging. These tools must increase overall network efficiency and profitability through effective management and tracking of network access and usage.
AAA software provides authentication, authorization & accounting management. Radius has a significant new generation of AAA server complemented by Diameter that merges all of these needs. It enables GSM operators to allow GSM mobile users to utilize their broadband network at home to initiate, accept and roam between their home and GSM networks seamlessly. The result is merged technologies with no dropped calls.
Next generation AAA Radius and Diameter promise to coexist for a long time. AAA Radius is a well defined management software designed for authentication, authorization & accounting in a extensible format. Many vendors are able to create next generation AAA Radius products without moving to Diameter. Diameter has some advantages that are being adopted by other market segments.
Diameter is a new framework in the Internet engineering task force (IETF) for the next-generation AAA server. Requirements for DIAMETER are being defined by the Mobile IP ROAMOPS (Roaming Operations) TR45.6 working group, as well as by other new-world technologies where there is a need to provide authentication or authorization to network resources or to capture accounting for billing of network resource usage such as a voice call.
Radius is an authentication integration middleware that interconnects business rules to the network servers in the context of providing carrier and enterprise security. Markets will grow in tandem as mobile users create more diversity in networks.
AAA Radius systems are used to gain real-time control over active subscriber sessions. Radius session control server provides granular, flexible interface to the business aspects of the network. Middleware is used to impose business rules on the network. Application authorization server benefits relate to the speed of time to market delivery of new applications.
Systems are used to control and manage user access to services at a more granular level. AAA Radius is an authentication integration middleware that provides for network flexibility and customization. Radius is expected to become the primary policy server for NAC/NAP networks, and coordinate policy between the Virus, spyware, and patch level systems because of the ability to serve as middleware between the network servers and the business application servers that implement rules.
User authentication is based on the authentication scheme that is already in place on the enterprise network; security policy enforcement allows the administrator to block unauthorized access, establish secure wireless connections, only permit access during certain times of the day or from a certain location, permit access only to certain areas of the network. Hence the positioning of Radius systems is as middleware that provides flexible systems.
Enterprise markets are set to grow as remote users become more diverse and access the enterprise network from a wider variety of access points supported by a wider diversity of client device types.
AAA Radius solution market forecasts indicate that markets at $866.4 million in 2008 are anticipated to reach $1.7 billion by 2015.
Table of Contents : AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
AAA Radius and Diameter Market Driving Forces
AAA Radius Solution Market Growth Factors
Diameter Protocol
Diameter Increased Footprint As Components of 3GPP IP
Diameter Framework
AAA Radius Market Shares
AAA Radius and Diameter Market Forecasts
1. AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER SERVER MARKET DESCRIPTION AND MARKET DYNAMICS
1.1 Diameter Protocol
1.1.1 Diameter in IMS
1.1.2 Diameter Framework
1.1.3 Authentication and Authorization AAA in Diameter
1.1.4 AAA Accounting
1.1.5 Diameter Model Is A Base Protocol
1.1.6 Diameter Relay Agent
1.2 Open Access Mobile Networks
1.3 Authentication And Authorization Combined In Radius
1.4 Radius Server and AAA & Radius Billing Software Integrations
1.4.1 Authentication/Integrity
1.4.2 Hotspot Traffic Vulnerabilities
1.4.3 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
1.4.4 802.1x
1.4.5 Port-Based Access Control
1.4.6 Mutual Authentication
1.4.7 Secure Portal For Information Crossing Organizational Boundaries
1.5 Airport
1.6 Advances In Networking
1.6.1 Service Provider Network Usage And Transactions Continue To Expand
1.6.2 Moving Processes Online And Extending The Enterprise Boundary
1.6.3 Identity Verification And Management
1.7 VoIP over WLAN
1.7.1 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
1.8 Remote VPN Access
1.8.1 Hosted RADIUS For Remote VPN Access
1.8.2 Hosted RADIUS For Remote VPN Access Benefits
1.8.3 Communication Between A Network Access Server (NAS) And A Radius Server
1.9 Prepaid Calling Cards
1.10 Authentication and Authorization Using Datametrics Service
1.10.1 Accounting
1.11 Impact Of Mobility On Enterprise Networks
1.11.1 Wireless Data Security
1.12 Implementation Of Broadband Wireless Access
1.12.1 Standardization with Spectrum Diversification
1.13 Fixed Wireless Applications
1.13.1 Wireless Computing
1.13.2 Wireless Lifestyle
1.13.3 WLAN Service Providers
1.13.4 Public WLAN Applications
1.13.5 Mobile Hot Spot Deployment
1.14 Market Driving Forces for Wireless Services
1.15 Wireless Communications Market Trends
1.15.1 Convergence Means That Voice Becomes Data In The Wireless Network
1.16 Worldwide Wireless Communications Market Driving Forces
1.16.1 Wireless Handset Go To Market Strategies
1.16.2 Impact Of Voice Packet Architecture
1.17 Broadband Fixed Wireless Access Advantages
1.18 Wireless ISPs and Major Carriers
1.18.1 Band Distinctions
1.19 Satellite Downlink
1.20 Hot-Spot Access Points
1.21 Wireless Enhances Productivity
1.21.1 A Mobile Notebook PC
1.21.2 Wireless LAN Home Network
1.22 Wireless Mobility For Small Business
1.23 Wireless Networking
1.23.1 Increased Productivity with Wireless Mobility
1.23.2 Lower Total Cost of Ownership
1.23.3 Reduced Administration Costs
1.23.4 Reduces End-User Downtime
1.23.5 Stable, Cost-Efficient Platform
1.23.6 Wireless Networking Business Benefits
1.24 Carrier-Grade Wi-Fi Services
2. AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER MARKET SHARES AND MARKET FORECASTS
2.1 AAA Radius and Diameter Market Driving Forces
2.1.1 AAA Radius Solution Market Growth Factors
2.1.2 Diameter Protocol
2.1.3 Diameter Increased Footprint As Components of 3GPP IP
2.1.4 Diameter Framework
2.1.5 Authentication and Authorization AAA in Diameter
2.1.6 Diameter AAA Accounting
2.2 AAA Radius Market Shares
2.2.1 Bridgewater AAA Service Controller
2.2.2 Interlink Networks
2.2.3 Cisco
2.2.4 Cisco Secure ACS
2.2.5 IEA Software
2.2.6 AAA Radius Performance Testing
2.2.7 Alcatel-Lucent VitalSuite
2.2.8 Worldwide Internet Service Provider (ISP) AAA Radius
2.3 Enterprise and Diameter Market Shares
2.4 AAA Radius and Diameter Market Forecasts
2.4.1 Carrier Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting AAA Radius Market Forecasts
2.4.2 Internet Service Provider (ISP) AAA Radius Forecasts
2.4.3 Enterprise and Diameter Market Forecasts
2.5 AAA Radius Enterprise Solution Servers
2.6 AAA Radius Pricing
2.6.1 IEA Software AAA Radius Pricing
2.6.2 AAA Radius Solution Carrier, Service Provider,
ISP, and Wireless Service Provider Market Forecast Analysis
2.7 Hotspots
2.7.1 Access Control
2.7.2 Privacy
2.8 Fixed Wireless / WiFi / WiMAX Technical Challenges
2.9 Fixed Wireless, WiMax, and WiFi Challenge and Opportunity
2.9.1 WiMAX Opportunity
2.9.2 Wireless LAN Market Driving Forces
2.9.3 Business Model For Mobile Operators
2.9.4 Wi-Fi Adoption
2.9.5 Networking Campus, Airports, and Hotels
2.9.6 Home Networking Campus:
2.10 AAA Radius Regional Analysis
2.10.1 Bridgewater Systems Regional Analysis
3. AUTHENTICATION, AUTHORIZATION, AND ACCOUNTING AAA(RADIUS) AND DIAMETER PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
3.1 Bridgewater Systems AAA Radius
3.1.1 Bridgewater AAA Service Controller
3.1.2 Bridgewater Systems Network Access Control
3.1.3 Bridgewater Prepaid Integrator
3.1.4 Bridgewater Revenue Collector and Formatter
3.1.5 Bridgewater AAA Service Controller
3.2 Interlink Networks
3.2.1 Interlink Networks RAD-Series RADIUS Server
3.2.2 Interlink Networks RAD-Series RADIUS Servers
3.2.3 Interlink Networks Roles of the RAD-Series RADIUS Servers
3.2.4 Interlink Networks Diameter Server Solutions Complements RAD-Series Authentication Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) RADIUS Server
3.2.5 Interlink Networks Radius Server Performance
3.2.6 Interlink Networks AAA RADIUS Server
3.2.7 Interlink Wireless LAN
3.2.8 Interlink Networks Securing Hotspots With RADIUS
3.2.9 Interlink Networks Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
3.2.10 Interlink Networks WPA Security in a Hotspot Architecture
3.2.11 Interlink Networks Securing Hotspots With RADIUS
3.2.12 Interlink Networks Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
3.2.13 Interlink Networks WPA Security in a Hotspot Architecture
3.3 Cisco Systems
3.3.1 Integrate Access Control, Enforce Network Access Policy
3.3.2 Cisco® Secure Access Control Server (ACS)
3.3.3 Cisco Secure ACS Features and Benefits
3.3.4 Cisco Diameter Protocol
3.4 Funk Software Enterprise Solution Description
3.5 Funk Software
3.5.1 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius
3.5.2 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius v5.0
3.5.3 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Functions
3.5.4 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Allows
Administrators To Centralize The Authentication Of All Users
3.5.5 Funk Software 802.1X-Based Infrastructure
3.5.6 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Features and Functionality
3.5.7 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius for Linux
3.5.8 Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius
3.5.9 Funk Software Odyssey
3.5.10 Funk Software Endpoint Assurance
3.5.11 Funk Software Carrier and ISP RADIUS/AAA Solutions
3.5.12 Funk Software Solutions
3.6 IBM Diameter Derived From RADIUS
3.6.1 IBM WebSphere Diameter Component
3.6.2 IBM WebSphere Diameter Enabler Base
3.6.3 IBM Diameter Applications Web Services
3.6.4 IBM AIX Radius Server
3.7 IEA Software
3.7.1 Emerald RadiusNT & RadiusX
3.7.2 Emerald Professional Edition Features and Benefits
3.7.3 Emerald Enterprise Edition Features and Benefits
3.7.4 Emerald Management Suite
3.7.5 IEA Software Emerald Suite
3.8 Juniper Networks Diameter Base Platform
3.8.1 Juniper Radius/Diameter Translation
3.8.2 Juniper IMS AAA Server Protocol Translation for Requests
3.8.3 Juniper Networks Diameter Base Platform
3.8.4 Juniper Diameter-Based Network
3.8.5 Juniper AAA Server
3.8.6 Juniper Networks Policy Control, Identity Management & Multi-Layer Security
3.9 ALEPO
3.9.1 Alepo Reliability and Radius Server Scalability
3.9.2 Alepo Platforms
3.9.3 Alepo Web-based Administration
3.9.4 Alepo Support for RADIUS RFCs
3.9.5 Alepo Smart RADIUS Servers
3.9.6 Alepo All-in-one RADIUS server
3.9.7 Alepo Complete RADIUS Billing and CRM
3.10 Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter
3.10.1 Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius IPSec Client Software
3.11 ActivCard AAA Server
3.11.1 ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server for Remote Access
3.11.2 ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Strong Authentication Solutions
3.11.3 ActivIdentity Authentication for Remote Access
3.11.4 ActivIdentity Gemalto Solutions
3.12 AdvancedVoIP Pvt Advanced RADIUS Server
3.12.1 Advanced VoIP Billing System ARS
3.13 Blue Ridge Networks
3.13.1 Blue Ridge VPN Client
3.14 Ericsson Access Solutions
3.14.1 Ericsson’s Revenue Management Solutions
3.14.2 Ericsson’s User Management
3.15 Fujitsu WiMAX Solutions
3.16 Huawei Technology
3.16.1 Huawei Multiple Service Edge Router (MSR) AAA function
3.17 Nortel Secure Network Access Switch Series
3.17.1 Nortel Application Server
3.18 Parwan Electronics (PEC)
3.18.1 Parwan Electronics Web And CGI Application Server
3.18.2 Parwan Electronics Billing Server Module CardSaver
3.18.3 Parwan Electronics Website Store Front
3.19 Rodopi Software
3.19.1 Rodopi Broadband Wireless Solutions
3.19.2 Rodopi Billing and Provisioning for Broadband Wireless / WIMAX Access Networks
3.19.3 Rodopi Billing And Provisioning for Public WiFi and Hot Spots
3.19.4 Rodopi Converged IP Billing & Provisioning
3.20 Aradial Technologies
3.21 NEC
3.21.1 NEC Electronic Signature and Validation plus AAA Services
3.21.2 NEC Voice Path Security
4. AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER SERVER TECHNOLOGY
4.1 AAA and Diameter
4.1.1 Diameter Nodes And Agents
4.1.2 Diameter Message Is The Base Unit To Send A Command
4.2 Alepo’s Radius Server RFCs
4.3 AAA and Network Security for Mobile Access: Radius, Diameter, IPSec, PKI and Mobile IP
4.4 User Need To Access Diverse Computing Resources From Remote Locations
4.4.1 AAA Process
4.5 Radius in the Hotspot
4.5.1 Key Success Factors When Implementing WPA In A Large-Scale, Public-Access Wireless Network
4.5.2 802.11x Device Connection To The WLAN
4.6 Bandwidth Management
4.6.1 Airlink Encryption
4.7 Accounting and Billing
4.8 Visitor Access To Websites
4.8.1 Zero Configuration
4.9 Wireless Network Technologies
4.9.1 Packet Bursting
4.9.2 Fast Frames
4.9.3 Hardware Compression and Encryption
4.9.4 Multi-Channel Bonding
4.9.5 Select Mode
4.9.6 Connecting To Multiple ISPs
4.9.7 Cisco Aironet WLAN Architecture
4.10 Business Center Technology
4.10.1 Multi-Service Access Platform
4.10.2 Deployment Tailored To The Local Regulatory Constraints
4.10.3 IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.1X
4.10.4 Wi-Fi Compliance
4.10.5 802.16d Non-Line-of-Site Point-to-Multipoint
4.10.6 802.16x
4.10.7 WEP 29
4.10.8 WHQL
4.10.9 WPA Compliance
4.10.10 LEAP 30
4.10.11 Cisco Pre-standard TKIP
4.10.12 PEAP with EAP-GTC Support
4.10.13 Quality of Service (QoS)
4.10.14 Fast 802.1X Reauthentication
4.10.15 Radio Environment Reporting
4.10.16 Access Point Specified Maximum Transmit Power
4.10.17 WLAN Frequency Bands
4.11 WiMAX Forum™ Multi-Access Broadband Strategy
4.11.1 WiMax Technology
4.12 GPRS Wireless Technology Standard
4.12.1 Wireless Packet Radio Services Technology
4.12.2 GPRS Support Nodes
4.12.3 PacketGSM Technology
4.12.4 GPRS Changing The Operator Business Environment
4.12.5 Nokia GPRS Core Solution
4.13 Medical Uses of Wi-Fi RFID
4.13.1 Proprietary Wi-Fi Based RFID Tags
4.13.2 RFID Hospital Transport Services
4.13.3 InfiniBand
4.13.4 InfiniBand (IB) Fabric Topology
4.13.5 Infiniband High-Performance Interconnect
4.13.6 10-Gigabit Ethernet
5. AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER COMPANY PROFILES
5.1 ActivIdentity
5.1.1 ActivIdentity Worldwide Locations
5.1.2 ActivIdentity Customers
5.1.3 ActivIdentity Partners and Industry Affiliations
5.1.4 ActivIdentity Revenue
5.2 Advanced VoIP Pvt Ltd
5.3 Envoy Data Corporation / ActivCard
5.4 Alcatel-Lucent Technologies
5.5 Alepo
5.6 Aradial Technologies
5.7 Blue Ridge Networks
5.7.1 Blue Ridge Networks Secure Communications
5.7.2 Blue Ridge Secure Thin Client
5.7.3 Blue Ridge/Secure AppGuard
5.7.4 Blue Ridge Secure AppGuard Stops Zero-day Malware
5.7.5 Blue Ridge Applications Guarded by Default
5.8 Bluesocket
5.8.1 Bluesocket Positioned To Simplify WLAN and VoIP Technology
5.8.2 Bluesocket Voice Ready WLAN
5.8.3 Bluesocket Edge-to-Edge architecture
5.8.4 Bluesocket Ready for Fixed Mobile Convergence
5.8.5 Bluesocket Wireless LAN Solutions Seamless Enterprise Mobility
5.9 Bridgewater Systems
5.9.1 Bridgewater Systems Rapid Deployment
5.9.2 Bridgewater Systems Carrier-Class Rapid Deployment
5.9.3 Bridgewater Systems Customers
5.9.4 Bridgewater Systems Revenue
5.9.5 Bridgewater Systems Financial Review
5.9.6 Bridgewater Partners
5.9.7 Bridgewater Systems Regional Analysis
5.10 Cisco
5.10.1 Cisco Systems Acquires Meetinghouse Data Communications
5.10.2 Cisco / Meetinghouse
5.11 Ericsson
5.12 Fujitsu
5.12.1 Fujitsu OSS/NOS
5.13 Funk Software
5.14 Gemalto
5.15 Huawei Technology
5.15.1 Huawei Next Generation Broadband Access Network
5.15.2 Huawei’s Next Generation Broadband Access Network (NG-BAN) Solution
5.15.3 Huawei Intelligent Terminals
5.15.4 Huawei Broadband Multi-Service Access Devices
5.15.5 Huawei Service Requirements
5.16 IEA Software
5.17 IBM
5.18 Intel
5.18.1 Intel WiMAX Technology
5.18.2 Intel WiMAX Standards and Interoperability
5.19 Interlink Networks
5.20 Juniper Networks
5.21 Microsense
5.22 Nortel
5.22.1 Secure Network Access Switch
5.22.2 Nortel WLAN Application Gateway
5.22.3 Nortel WLAN IP Telephony Manager
5.23 Nortel Communication & Application Servers Portfolio
5.23.1 Nortel Adaptive Application Engine
5.23.2 Nortel Application Server 5200
5.24 Parwan Electronics (PEC)
5.25 Rodopi Software
5.25.1 Rodopi Solution Partners
5.25.2 Rodopi VoIP Softswitches and Solutions
5.25.3 Rodopi Cable, Satellite, Wireless Broadband Applications
5.25.4 Rodopi Credit Card and Payment Processors
5.25.5 Radius Servers
5.25.6 Development Partner
5.25.7 Bandwidth Management Devices
5.25.8 Rodopi Domain Name Registrars
5.25.9 Rodopi Email Solutions and Mail Servers
5.25.10 Rodopi Hosting Automation and Web Hosting
5.25.11 Rodopi Tax Solutions
5.25.12 Rodopi Emergency Services
5.25.13 Broadsoft-Rodopi Integrated Solution
5.26 Spotngo
5.27 UTStarcom
5.27.1 UT Starcom Next Generation Networks (NGN)
5.27.2 UT Starcom Broadband Enabling Personalized And Interactive Applications
List of Tables and Figures
AAA RADIUS AND DIAMETER EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
AAA Radius and Diameter Market Driving Forces
AAA Radius Solution Market Growth Factors
Diameter Protocol
Diameter Increased Footprint As Components of 3GPP IP
Diameter Framework
AAA Radius Market Shares
AAA Radius and Diameter Market Forecasts
Table 1-1
Diameter Advantages Over Radius
Table 1-1 (Continued)
Diameter Advantages Over Radius
Table 1-1 (Continued)
Diameter Advantages Over Radius
Table 1-2
Diameter Base Protocol
Table 1-3
Benefits Of Diameter
Table 1-4
Diameter Framework Application Support
Table 1-4 (Continued)
Diameter Framework Application Support
Table 1-5
Differences Between RADIUS and Diameter
Table 1-5 (Continued)
Differences Between RADIUS and Diameter
Table 1-6
Authentication Security Issues
Table 1-6 (Continued)
Authentication Security Issues
Table 1-7
VoIP over WLAN (Voice over IP over Wireless
Local Area Network) Issues
Table 1-7 (Continued)
VoIP over WLAN (Voice over IP over Wireless
Local Area Network) Issues
Table 1-7 (Continued)
VoIP over WLAN (Voice over IP over Wireless
Local Area Network) Issues
Table 1-7 (Continued)
VoIP over WLAN (Voice over IP over Wireless
Local Area Network) Issues
Table 1-8
VoIP over WLAN (Voice over IP over Wireless
Local Area Network) Authentication Issues
Table 1-9
Hosted Radius For Remote VPN Access Benefits
Table 1-9 (Continued)
Hosted Radius For Remote VPN Access Benefits
Table 1-9 (Continued)
Hosted Radius For Remote VPN Access Benefits
Table 1-10
Interaction Between A Dial-In User And Radius Client And Server
Table 1-11
Radius Authentication And Authorization Sequence
Table 1-12
Impact Of Mobility On Enterprise Networks
Table 1-13
WLAN Market Participants
Table 1-14
Changes In Communications Competitive Environment
Table 1-15
Changes In Wireless Market Direction
Table 1-16
Issues In Wireless Services Markets
Table 1-17
Changes In Wireless Services Markets
Table 1-18
Principal Competitive Factors In Wireless Communications Markets
Table 1-19
Hot-Spot Access Point Services
Table 1-20
Wireless Productivity Enhancement
Table 1-21
Fixed Wireless Productivity Gain Benefits
Table 1-22
Wireless Networking Internet Locations Business Benefits
Table 1-23
Carrier-Grade Wi-Fi Services Functions
Table 2-1
AAA Radius Solution Market Driving Forces
Table 2-2
Diameter Market Driving Forces
Table 2-2 (Continued)
Diameter Market Driving Forces
Table 2-3
Worldwide Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting AAA Radius Shipments Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-4
Worldwide Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting AAA Radius Shipments Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-5
Bridgewater Systems Key Elements Of Growth Strategy
Table 2-6
Network Computing Independent Real-World Labs Tests
Figure 2-7
Worldwide AAA Radius Shipments
Carrier Communications Provider Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-8
Worldwide AAA Radius Shipments
Carrier Communications Provider Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-9
Worldwide Internet Service Provider (ISP) AAA Radius
Shipments Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-10
Worldwide Internet Service Provider (ISP) AAA Radius
Shipments Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Figure 2-11
Worldwide Enterprise AAA Radius and Diameter
Wireless Service Provider Shipments, Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 2-12
Worldwide Enterprise AAA Radius and Diameter
Wireless Service Provider Shipments, Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Figure 2-13
Worldwide AAA Radius Carrier, Internet Service
Provider, and Diameter, Market Forecasts, Dollars, 2009-2015
Figure 2-14
Worldwide AAA Radius Carrier, Internet Service Provider,
and Diameter, Market Forecasts, Dollars, 2009-2015
Figure 2-15
Worldwide Carrier Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting AAA Radius Market Forecasts, Dollars, 2009-2015
Figure 2-16
Worldwide Internet Service Provider (ISP) AAA Radius
Forecasts, Dollars, 2008-2015
Figure 2-17
Worldwide Enterprise AAA Radius and Diameter Market Forecasts
Figure 2-18
Worldwide AAA Radius Carrier, Internet Service
Provider, and Diameter, Market Forecasts,
Units and Dollars, 2009-2015
Table 2-19
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) Target Markets
Table 2-19 (Continued)
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) Target Markets
Table 2-20
Regional AAA Radius Shipment Analysis Market Shares,
Dollars, 2008
Table 2-21
Regional AAA Radius Shipment Analysis
Market Shares, Dollars, 2008
Table 3-1
Bridgewater AAA Service Controller at a Glance
Table 3-2
Bridgewater AAA Features and Benefits
Table 3-3
AAA Service Controller Features
Table 3-4
Bridgewater AAA Service Controller Installation Features
Table 3-5
Interlink Networks RAD-Series RADIUS Server Benefits
Table 3-6
Interlink Networks RAD-Series RADIUS Server Architecture
Table 3-7
Interlink Networks’ RAD-Series RADIUS
Software Competitive Advantages
Figure 3-8
Interlink Networks Carrier-Class RADIUS Server Reliability Base
Table 3-9
Interlink Networks Modules
Table 3-10
Interlink Networks AAA Server Modular Architecture
Table 3-11
Interlink AAA RADIUS Server Functions
Table 3-12
Interlink RAD-Series Features
Table 3-12 (Continued)
Interlink RAD-Series Features
Table 3-13
Interlink RAD-Series Benefits
Table 3-14
Interlink RAD-Series Advanced Control Flexibility
Table 3-15
VoIP Billing Features
Table 3-15 (Continued)
VoIP Billing Features
Table 3-15 (Continued)
VoIP Billing Features
Table 3-15 (Continued)
VoIP Billing Features
Table 3-16
Cisco Secure Access Control Server Integration Benefits
Table 3-16 (Continued)
Cisco Secure Access Control Server Integration Benefits
Table 3-17
Cisco Secure ACS: Key features of Central Management
of Access To Network Resources
Table 3-17 (Continued)
Cisco Secure ACS: Key Features of Central Management
of Access To Network Resources
Table 3-18
Cisco Secure ACS Concurrent Access Scenarios
Table 3-18 (Continued)
Cisco Secure ACS Concurrent Access Scenarios
Table 3-18 (Continued)
Cisco Secure ACS Concurrent Access Scenarios
Table 3-19
Key Features and Benefits of Cisco Secure ACS
Table 3-20
Funk Software Network Access Security Solutions Key Features
Table 3-20 (Continued)
Funk Software Network Access Security Solutions Key Features
Table 3-21
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Solution Network Functions
Table 3-21 (Continued)
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Solution Network Functions
Table 3-22
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Functions
Table 3-23
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Features
Table 3-24
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Functions
Table 3-24 (Continued)
Funk Software Steel-Belted Radius Functions
Table 3-25
Funk Software Solutions
Table 3-25 (Continued)
Funk Software Solutions
Table 3-26
IBM WebSphere Diameter Enabler Components
Table 3-27
IBM WebSphere Diameter Enabler
Table 3-28
IBM WebSphere Diameter Channel Framework Architecture
Table 3-29
IBM AIX Radius Server Functions
Table 3-30
IBM AIX Radius Server Features
Table 3-31
IBM RADIUS Server Password Hiding Algorithms
Table 3-32
Key Features Of IBM AIX Radius Server
Table 3-33
IEA Software Product Versions
Table 3-34
IEA Software Selected AAA Radius and
Account Management Features
Table 3-35
IEA Software Selected AAA Radius Marketing Features
Table 3-36
IEA Software Selected CRM/Incident tracking features
Table 3-37
IEA Software Selected Customer Self-Management And Signup
Table 3-38
IEA Software Selected Network traffic accounting (EmerNet)
Table 3-39
IEA Software Selected Real-Time Usage Rating
Table 3-40
IEA Software Selected Reseller Billing
Table 3-41
IEA Software Selected Prepaid Card Accounts
Table 3-42
IEA Software Selected Credit Card and ACH/EFT processing
Table 3-43
IEA Software Selected Reporting
Table 3-44
IEA Software Selected Audit and Logging
Table 3-45
IEA Software Selected Provisioning
Table 3-46
IEA Software Selected Security Features
Table 3-47
IEA Software Selected RadiusNT/X Version 5 Features
Table 3-48
IEA Software Selected RadiusNT/X Enterprise features
Table 3-49
Juniper Networks Diameter Base Platform Functions
Table 3-50
IMS AAA Server Protocol Translation Functions
Figure 3-51
Juniper Protocol Translation for IMS AAA Server Requests
Figure 3-52
Juniper Dynamic Authorization Message Translation
Table 3-53
Juniper Diameter Base Platform Benefits
Table 3-54
Juniper Networks Diameter Base Functions
Table 3-55
Juniper’s Diameter Base Platform Benefits
Table 3-56
Juniper Diameter-Based Network Specifications
Table 3-57
Juniper IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) AAA Server
Table 3-58
Alepo RADIUS Server Solutions Functions
Table 3-59
Alepo RADIUS Server Solutions Services
Figure 3-60
Alepo RADIUS Supported Operating Systems:
Table 3-61
Alepo All-In-One RADIUS Server Solution
Table 3-62
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter Benefits
Table 3-63
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter Features
Table 3-64
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter
Features for AAA Requirements
Table 3-65
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter Support For Applications
Table 3-66
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter
Third-Party Vendor Support
Table 3-67
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius / Diameter Application support
Table 3-68
Alcatel-Lucent AAA Radius Benefits:
Table 3-69
Alcatel-Lucent IPSec Client Functions
Table 3-70
Alcatel-Lucent IPSec Client Security Features
Table 3-71
Alcatel-Lucent Centralized Security Management Server (LSMS)
Table 3-72
Alcatel-Lucent IPSec Client implementation Aspects
Table 3-73
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Key Features
Table 3-74
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Implementation
And Administration
Table 3-75
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Secure Web Access
Table 3-76
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Benefits Compelling ROI
Table 3-77
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Components
Table 3-78
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Interfaces and APIs
Table 3-79
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Security services
Table 3-80
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Authentication Options
Table 3-81
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Compliance
With Industry Standards
Table 3-82
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Compatibility
Table 3-83
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server System
Requirements Administration Console
Table 3-84
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Authentication Server
Table 3-85
ActivIdentity 4TRESS AAA Server Web Access Agents
Table 3-86
ActivIdentity Strong Authentication for Remote Access
Table 3-87
ActivIdentity Strong Authentication Features and Benefits
Table 3-88
ActivIdentity Certifications
Table 3-89
ActivIdentity Standards Compliance
Table 3-90
ActivIdentity Supported VPN / Dial-up products
Table 3-91
ActivIdentity Products Used In Solution
Table 3-92
ActivIdentity Supported Web Products
Table 3-93
ActivIdentity Supported Remote Applications
Figure 2-94
Advanced Radius Server (ARS) Functions
Table 3-95
Advanced RADIUS Server (ARS) VoIP Benefits
Table 3-96
Blue Ridge AAA VPN Key Features:
Table 3-97
Ericsson’s Revenue Management Solutions
Software Development Kit Features
Table 3-98
Ericsson’s User Management Products
Table 3-99
Ericsson’s User Management Key features
Figure 3-100
Fujitsu WiMAX Solutions Leverage AAA Radius
Table 3-101
Nortel Network Access Control (SNA) Functions
Figure 3-102
Nortel Secure Network Access Switch 4050
Table 3-103
Nortel Application Server 5300 Key Features:
Table 3-104
Parwan Electronics Billing Server Module CardSaver
Figure 3-105
Rodopi OSS Billing and Provisioning -
Figure 3-106
Rodopi Hosted Services – EasyOSS
Figure 3-107
Rodopi VoIP Core System
Table 3-108
Rodopi Wireless / WIMAX Broadband Networks
Table 3-109
Rodopi OSS, WIMAX and Wireless Broadband Solution
Table 3-110
Rodopi Features For Public WiFi and Hot Spots
Table 3-111
Rodopi OSS, Public WiFi Operator Benefits
Table 3-112
Rodopi Broadband Wireless OSS Features:
Table 3-113
Rodopi Broadband Service Provider OSS features:
Table 3-114
Aradial Radius Features
Figure 3-115
AAA Security Access Flow
Table 4-1
Alepo’s Radius Server RFCs Compliance
Table 4-2
AAA Authentication Accounting Fundamentals
Table 4-3
Large-Scale, Public-Access Wireless Network WPA
Key Success Factors
Figure 4-4
Adaptive Multimode Modulation
Table 4-5
Quality of Service (QoS) Service-Level Agreement (SLAs) Support
Table 4-5 (Continued)
Quality of Service (QoS) Service-Level Agreement (SLAs) Support
Table 4-6
GPRS Wireless PC Card Functions
Table 4-7
Wireless GPRS Features
Table 4-8
InfiniBand (IB) Fabric Topology
Table 4-8 (Continued)
InfiniBand (IB) Fabric Topology
Table 5-1
Advanced VoIP Pvt Ltd AVPL Target Market Sectors
Table 5-2
AVPL Domains Of Telecom Market Positioning
Table 5-3
Blue Ridge Networks Extranet Solution Functions
Table 5-4
Blue Ridge Networks Secure Thin Client Components
Table 5-5
Blue Ridge Secure AppGuard Complements Existing
Security Software
Table 5-6 (Continued)
Blue Ridge Secure AppGuard Complements Existing
Security Software
Table 5-7
Blue Ridge Workload Reduction Impact
Table 5-8
Blue Ridge Non-Intrusive Protection
Table 5-9
Applications Automatically Guarded When Blue Ridge
Secure AppGuard Is Installed
Table 5-10
Bluesocket Solution Benefits:
Table 5-10 (Continued)
Bluesocket Solution Benefits:
Table 5-10 (Continued)
Bluesocket Solution Benefits:
Table 5-11
Bridgewater Systems Comprehensive Service
Control Portfolio Features:
Table 5-12
Bridgewater Systems Comprehensive Service
Control Portfolio Features:
Table 5-13
Cisco solutions For Business Security
Table 5-14
Cisco Key Features:
Table 5-15
Ericsson Network Equipment
Table 5-16
Nortel WLAN IP Telephony Manager Key Features:
Table 5-17
Rodopi Software Key Solutions for Broadband
Table 5-17 (Continued)
Rodopi Software Key Solutions for Broadband
Table 5-18
Rodopi Software Key Market Segments:
Figure 5-19
UT Starcom Next Generation Networks (NGN) Architecture
Figure 5-20
UT Starcom Broadband Architecture
For More information please contact :
About the Author
Minal H
SEO
vinod.minal@gmail.com
http://www.aarkstore.com
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Nuclear thermal rocket
Types of Nuclear Thermal Rockets
A nuclear thermal rocket can be categorized by the construction of its reactor, which can range from a relatively simple solid reactor up to a much more complicated but more efficient reactor with a gas core.
Solid core
The most traditional type uses a conventional (albeit light-weight) nuclear reactor running at high temperatures to heat the working fluid that is moving through the reactor core. This is known as the solid-core design, and is the simplest design to construct.
A NERVA solid-core design
The solid-core has the downside that it can only be run at temperatures below the melting point of the materials used in the reactor core. Since the efficiency of a rocket engine is strongly related to the temperature of the working fluid, the solid-core design needs to be constructed of materials that remain strong at as high a temperature as possible. Even the most advanced materials melt at temperatures below that which the fuel can actually create, meaning that much of the potential energy of the reactions is lost. Usually, with hydrogen propellant the solid-core design is expected to deliver specific impulses (Isp) on the order of 800 to 900 seconds, about twice that of liquid hydrogen-oxygen designs such as the Space Shuttle main engine. Other propellants are sometimes proposed such as water or LOX; although they would provide reduced exhaust velocity, their greater availability can reduce payload costs by a very large factor where the mission delta-v is not too high, for example within cislunar space or between Earth orbit and Martian orbit.
Immediately after World War II, the weight of a complete nuclear reactor was so great that it was feared that solid-core engines would be hard-pressed[citation needed] to achieve a thrust-to-weight ratio of 1:1, which would be needed to overcome the gravity of the Earth on launch. The problem was quickly overcome, however, and U.S. nuclear thermal rocket designs quickly reached thrust-to-weight ratios of approximately 7:1. Even the ground-tested Soviet RD-0410 had a vacuum ratio of 1.8. Still, the lower thrust-to-weight ratio of nuclear thermal rockets versus chemical rockets means that solid-core engines are best for use in upper stages where vehicle velocity is already near orbital, in space “tugs” used to take payloads between gravity wells, or in launches from a lower gravity planet, moon or minor planet where the required thrust is lower. To be a useful Earth launch engine, the system would have to be either much lighter, or provide even higher specific impulse. The true strength of nuclear rockets currently lies in solar system exploration, outside Earth’s gravity well.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Particle Bed Reactor
One way to increase the temperature, and thus the specific impulse, is to isolate the fuel elements so they no longer have to be rigid. This is the basis of the particle-bed reactor, also known as the fluidized-bed, dust-bed, or rotating-bed design. In this design the fuel is placed in a number of (typically spherical) elements which “float” inside the hydrogen working fluid. Spinning the entire engine forces the fuel elements out to walls that are being cooled by the hydrogen. This design increases the specific impulse to about 1000 seconds (9.8 kNs/kg), allowing for thrust-to-weight ratios just over 1:1, although at the cost of increased complexity. Such a design could share design elements with a pebble-bed reactor, several of which are currently generating electricity.
Liquid core
Dramatically greater improvements can theoretically be had by mixing the nuclear fuel into the working fluid, and allowing the reaction to take place in the liquid mixture itself. This is the basis of the so-called liquid-core engine, which can operate at higher temperatures beyond the melting point of the nuclear fuel. In this case the maximum temperature is whatever the container wall (typically a neutron reflector of some sort) can withstand, while actively cooled by the hydrogen. It is expected that the liquid-core design can deliver performance on the order of 1300 to 1500 seconds (12.814.8 kNs/kg).
These engines are difficult to build. The reaction time of the nuclear fuel is much higher than the heating time of the working fluid, requiring a method to trap the fuel inside the engine while allowing the working fluid to easily exit through the nozzle. Most liquid-phase engines have focused on rotating the fuel/fluid mixture at very high speeds, forcing the fuel to the outside due to centrifugal force (uranium is heavier than hydrogen). In many ways the design mirrors the particle-bed design, although operating at even higher temperatures.
An alternative liquid-core design, the nuclear salt-water rocket has been proposed by Robert Zubrin. In this design, the working fluid is water, which serves as neutron moderator as well. The nuclear fuel is not retained, drastically simplifying the design. However, by its very design, the rocket would discharge massive quantities of extremely radioactive waste and could only be safely operated well outside the earth’s atmosphere and perhaps even entirely outside earth’s magnetosphere.
Gas core
The final classification is the gas-core engine. This is a modification to the liquid-core design which uses rapid circulation of the fluid to create a toroidal pocket of gaseous uranium fuel in the middle of the reactor, surrounded by hydrogen. In this case the fuel does not touch the reactor wall at all, so temperatures could reach several tens of thousands of degrees, which would allow specific impulses of 3000 to 5000 seconds (30 to 50 kNs/kg). In this basic design, the “open cycle”, the losses of nuclear fuel would be difficult to control, which has led to studies of the “closed cycle” or nuclear lightbulb engine, where the gaseous nuclear fuel is contained in a super-high-temperature quartz container, over which the hydrogen flows. The closed cycle engine actually has much more in common with the solid-core design, but this time limited by the critical temperature of quartz instead of the fuel stack. Although less efficient than the open-cycle design, the closed-cycle design is expected to deliver a rather respectable specific impulse of about 1500-2000 seconds (1520 kNs/kg).
Practical Testing
The KIWI A prime nuclear thermal rocket engine
Although engineering studies of all of these designs were made, only the solid-core engine was ever built. Development of such engines started under the aegis of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1956 as Project Rover, with work on a suitable reactor starting at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Area 25 in the Nevada Test Site. Two basic designs came from this project, Kiwi and NRX.
Kiwi was the first to be fired, starting in July 1959 with Kiwi 1. The reactor was not intended for flight, hence the naming of the rocket after a flightless bird. This was unlike later tests because the engine design could not really be used; the core was simply a stack of uncoated uranium oxide plates onto which the hydrogen was dumped. Nevertheless it generated 70 MW and produced an exhaust temperature of 2683 K. Two additional tests of the basic concept, A’ and A3, added coatings to the plates to test fuel rod concepts.
The Kiwi B series fully developed the fuel system, which consisted of the uranium fuel in the form of tiny uranium dioxide (UO2) spheres embedded in a low-boron graphite matrix, and then coated with niobium carbide. Nineteen holes ran the length of the bundles, and through these holes the liquid hydrogen flowed for cooling. A final change introduced during the Kiwi program changed the fuel to uranium carbide, which was run for the last time in 1964.
Using information developed from the Kiwi series, the Phoebus series developed much larger reactors. The first 1A test in June 1965 ran for over 10 minutes at 1090 MW, with an exhaust temperature of 2370 K. The B run in February 1967 improved this to 1500 MW for 30 minutes. The final 2A test in June 1968 ran for over 12 minutes at 4,000 MW, the most powerful nuclear reactor ever built. For contrast, the largest hydroelectric plant in the world, Itaipu, produces 14,000 MW, 19% of all the power used in Brazil.
A smaller version of Kiwi, the Peewee was also built. It was fired several times at 500 MW in order to test coatings made of zirconium carbide (instead of niobium carbide) but also increased the power density of the system. An unrelated water-cooled system known as NF-1 (for Nuclear Furnace) was used for future materials testing.
While Kiwi was being run, NASA joined the effort with their NERVA program (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Applications). Unlike the AEC work, which was intended to study the reactor design itself, NERVA was aiming to produce a real engine that could be deployed on space missions. A 75,000 lbf (334 kN) thrust baseline design was considered for some time as the upper stages for the Saturn V, in place of the J-2s that were actually flown.
The design that eventually developed, known as NRX for short, started testing in September 1964. The final engine in this series was the EX, which was the first designed to be fired in a downward position (like a “real” rocket engine) and was fired twenty-eight times in March 1968. The series all generated 1100 MW, and many of the tests concluded only when the test-stand ran out of hydrogen fuel. EX produced the baseline 75,000 lbf (334 kN) thrust that NERVA required.
A KIWI engine being destructively tested
All of these designs also shared a number of problems that were never completely cured. The engines were also quite easy to break, and on many firings the vibrations inside the reactors cracked the fuel bundles and caused the reactors to break apart. This problem was largely solved by the end of the program, and related work at Argonne National Laboratory looked promising. However, while the graphite construction was indeed able to be heated to high temperatures, it likewise eroded quite heavily due to the hydrogen. The coatings never wholly solved this problem, and significant “losses” of fuel occurred on most firings. This problem did not look like it would be solved any time soon.
The NERVA/Rover project was eventually cancelled in 1972 with the general wind-down of NASA in the post-Apollo era. Without a manned mission to Mars, the need for a nuclear thermal rocket was unclear. To a lesser extent it was becoming clear that there could be intense public outcry against any attempt to use a nuclear engine.
Although the Kiwi/Phoebus/NERVA designs were the only ones to be tested in any substantial program, a number of other solid-core engines were also studied to some degree. The Small Nuclear Rocket Engine, or SNRE, was designed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) for upper stage use, both on unmanned launchers as well as the Space Shuttle. It featured a split-nozzle that could be rotated to the side, allowing it to take up less room in the Shuttle cargo bay. The design provided 73 kN of thrust and operated at a specific impulse of 875 seconds (8.58 kNs/kg), and it was planned to increase this to 975 with fairly basic upgrades. This allowed it to achieve a mass fraction of about 0.74, comparing with 0.86 for the SSME, one of the best conventional engines.
A related design that saw some work, but never made it to the prototype stage, was Dumbo. Dumbo was similar to Kiwi/NERVA in concept, but used more advanced construction techniques to lower the weight of the reactor. The Dumbo reactor consisted of several large tubes (more like barrels) which were in turn constructed of stacked plates of corrugated material. The corrugations were lined up so that the resulting stack had channels running from the inside to the outside. Some of these channels were filled with uranium fuel, others with a moderator, and some were left open as a gas channel. Hydrogen was pumped into the middle of the tube, and would be heated by the fuel as it travelled through the channels as it worked its way to the outside. The resulting system was lighter than a conventional design for any particular amount of fuel. The project developed some initial reactor designs and appeared to be feasible.
More recently an advanced engine design was studied under Project Timberwind, under the aegis of the Strategic Defence Initiative (“Star Wars”), which was later expanded into a larger design in the Space Thermal Nuclear Propulsion (STNP) program. Advances in high-temperature metals, computer modelling and nuclear engineering in general resulted in dramatically improved performance. While the NERVA engine was projected to weigh about 6,803 kg, the final STNP offered just over 1/3rd the thrust from an engine of only 1,650 kg improving the Isp to between 930 and 1000 seconds.
Nuclear vs. chemical
Directly comparing the performance of a nuclear engine and a chemical one is not easy; the design of any rocket is a study in compromises and different ideas of what constitutes “better”. In the outline below we will consider the NERVA-derived engine that was considered by NASA in the 1960s, comparing it with the S-IVB stage from the Saturn it was intended to replace.
For any given thrust, the amount of power that needs to be generated is defined by P = T * Ve / 2, where T is the thrust, and Ve is the exhaust velocity. Ve can be calculated from the specific impulse, Isp, where Ve = Isp * gn (when Isp is in seconds and gn is the standard, not local, acceleration of gravity), Using the J-2 on the S-IVB as a baseline design, we have P = (1014 kN)(414 s)(9.81 m/s2)/2 = 2,060 MW. This is about the amount of power generated in a large nuclear reactor.
However, as outlined above, even the simple solid-core design provided a large increase in Isp to about 850 seconds. Using the formula above, we can calculate the amount of power that needs to be generated, at least given extremely efficient heat transfer: P = (1014 kN)(850 s * 9.81 m/s)/2 = 4,227 MW. Note that it is the Isp improvement that demands the higher energy. Given inefficiencies in the heat transfer, the actual NERVA designs were planned to produce about 5 GW, which would make them the largest nuclear reactors in the world.
The fuel flow for any given thrust level can be found from m = T / Ve. For the J-2, this is m = 1014 kN/(414 * 9.81), or about 250 kg/s. For the NERVA replacement considered above, this would be 121 kg/s. Remember that the mass of hydrogen is much lower than the hydrogen/oxygen mix in the J-2, where only about 1/6th of the mass is hydrogen. Since liquid hydrogen has a density of about 70 kg/m, this represents a flow of about 1,725 litres per second, about three times that of the J-2. This requires additional plumbing but is by no means a serious problem; the famed F-1 had flow rates on the order of 25,000 l/s.
Finally, one must consider the design of the stage as a whole. The S-IVB carried just over 300,000 litres of fuel; 229,000 litres of liquid hydrogen (17,300 kg), and 72,700 litres of liquid oxygen (86,600 kg). The S-IVB uses a common bulkhead between the tanks, so removing it to produce a single larger tank would increase the total load only slightly. A new hydrogen-only nuclear stage would thus carry just over 300,000 litres in total (300 m), or about 21,300 kg (47,000 lb). At 1,725 litres per second, this is a burn time of only 175 seconds, compared to about 500 in the original S-IVB (although some of this is at a lower power setting).
The total change in velocity, the so-called delta-v, can be found from the rocket equation, which is based on the starting and ending masses of the stage:
Where m0 is the initial mass with fuel, m1 the final mass without it, and Ve is as above. The total empty mass of the J-2 powered S-IVB was 13,311 kg, of which about 1,600 kg was the J-2 engine. Removing the inter-tank bulkhead to improve hydrogen storage would likely lighten this somewhat, perhaps to 10,500 kg for the tankage alone. The baseline NERVA designs were about 15,000 lb, or 6,800 kg, making the total unfueled mass (m1) of a “drop-in” S-IVB replacement around 17,300 kg. The lighter weight of the fuel more than makes up for the increase in engine weight; whereas the fueled mass (m0) of the original S-IVB was 119,900 kg, for the nuclear-powered version this drops to only 38,600 kg.
Following the formula above, this means the J-2 powered version generates a v of (414 s * 9.81) ln(119,900/13,311), or 8,900 m/s. The nuclear-powered version assumed above would be (850*9.81) ln(38,600/17,300), or 6,700 m/s. This drop in overall performance is due largely to the much higher “burnout” weight of the engine, and to smaller burn time due to the less-dense fuel. As a drop-in replacement, then, the nuclear engine does not seem to offer any advantages.
However, this simple examination ignores several important issues. For one, the new stage weighs considerably less than the older one, which means that the lower stages below it will leave the new upper stage at a higher velocity. This alone will make up for much of the difference in performance. More importantly, the comparison assumes that the stage would otherwise remain the same design overall. This is a bad assumption; one generally makes the upper stages as large as they can be given the throw-weight of the stages below them. In this case one would not make a drop-in version of the S-IVB, but a larger stage who’s overall weight was the same as the S-IVB.
Following that line of reasoning, we can envision a replacement S-IVB stage that weighs 119,900 kg fully fueled, which would require much larger tanks. Assuming that the tankage mass triples, we have a m1 of 31,500 + 6,800 = 38,300 kg, and since we have fixed m0 at 119,900 kg, we get v = (850 s*9.81) ln(119,900/38,300), or 9,500 m/s. Thus, given the same mass as the original S-IVB, one can expect a moderate increase in overall performance using a nuclear engine. This stage would be about the same size as the S-II stage used on the Saturn.
Of course this increase in tankage might not be easy to arrange. NASA actually considered a new S-IVB replacement, the S-N, built to be as physically large as possible while still being able to be built in the VAB. It weighed only 10,429 kg empty and 53,694 kg fueled (suggesting that structural loading is the dominant factor in stage mass, not the tankage). The combination of lower weight and higher performance improved the payload of the Saturn V as a whole from 127,000 kg delivered to low earth orbit (LEO) to 155,000 kg.
It is also worth considering the improvement in stage performance using the more advanced engine from the STNP program. Using the same S-IVB baseline, which does make sense in this case due to the lower thrust, we have an unfueled weight (m1) of 10,500 + 1,650 = 12,150 kg, and a fueled mass (m0) of 22,750 + 12,150 = 34,900 kg. Putting these numbers into the same formula we get a v of just over 10,000 m/semember, this is from the smaller S-IV-sized stage. Even with the lower thrust, the stage also has a thrust-to-weight ratio similar to the original S-IVB, 34,900 kg being pushed by 350 kN (10.0 N/kg or 1.02 lbf/lb), as opposed to 114,759 kg pushed by 1,112 kN (9.7 N/kg or 0.99 lbf/lb). The STNP-based S-IVB would indeed be a “drop-in replacement” for the original S-IVB, offering higher performance from much lower weight.
Risks
There is an inherent possibility of atmospheric or orbital rocket failure which could result in a dispersal of radioactive material, and resulting fallout. Catastrophic failure, meaning the release of radioactive material into the environment, would be the result of a containment breach. A containment breach could be the result of an impact with orbital debris, material failure due to uncontrolled fission, material imperfections or fatigue and human design flaws. A release of radioactive material while in flight could disperse radioactive debris over the Earth in a wide and unpredictable area. The zone of contamination and its concentration would be dependent on prevailing weather conditions and orbital parameters at the time of re-entry. However given that oxide reactor elements are designed to withstand high temperatures (up to 3500 K) and high pressures (up to 200 atm normal operating pressures) it’s highly unlikely a reactor’s fuel elements would be reduced to powder and spread over a wide-area. More likely highly radioactive fuel elements would be dispersed intact over a much smaller area, and although individually quite lethal up-close, the overall hazard from the elements would be confined to near the launch site and would be much lower than the many open-air nuclear weapons tests of the 1950s.
Notes
^ a b Wade, Mark. “RD-0410″. Encyclopedia Astronautica. http://www.astronautix.com/engines/rd0410.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
^ a b “Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky – Scientific-Research Complex / RD0410. Nuclear Rocket Engine. Advanced launch vehicles”. KBKhA – Chemical Automatics Design Bureau. http://www.kbkha.ru/?p=8&cat=11&prod=66. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
^ TETREAULT, STEVE (2001-05-12). “CONTROVERSIAL PLAN: Nuke plants proposed for test site”. Las Vegas Review-Journal (Donrey Washington Bureau). http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2001/May-12-Sat-2001/news/16082304.html. Retrieved 2009-09-04.
See also
NERVA
Project Prometheus
Project Timberwind
Project Pluto
nuclear pulse propulsion
spacecraft propulsion
UHTREX
In-situ resource utilization
Anthony Zuppero
External links
Dumbo (PDF)
picture of the EX’ engine
Rover Nuclear Rocket Engine Program: Final Report – NASA 1991 (PDF)
Neofuel Proposal for steam-based interplanetary drive, using off-earth ice deposits
Project Prometheus: Beyond the Moon and Mars
Nuclear propulsion (German)
RD-0410 USSR’s nuclear rocket engine
Soviet/russian solid core nuclear rocket engine (Russian)
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Categories: Nuclear spacecraft propulsionHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009
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